
..»*»fl» 






SCHOOL? 

BOOK 

OF 

FARMING 



L .H.BAILEY 



wmiiiinin I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijmi 



Ube IRuval UcxU3Boo\\ Series ' 

Edited by L. il. BAILEY 



THE SCHOOL-BOOK OF FARMING 



viiir l\ural ^irxt^Book Srrirs 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 

Bailey : School-Book of Farming. 

Carleton : The Small Graixs. 

B. M. Duggar : The Phtsiologt of Plant 

PRODUCTIOy. 

./. F. Duggar: Southern- Field Crops. 

Fisk : Book of Ice Cream. 

Gay: Breeds of Live-Stock. 

Gay : Principles and Practice of Judgixg 

Live-Stock. 
Goff: Principles of Plant Cclture. 
Guthrie : Book of Butter. 
Harper: Animal Husbandri for Schools. 
Harris and Steicart : Principles of Agron'- 

OMT. 

Hitchcock : Text-Book of Grasses. 

Jejfery : Text-Book of Land Drainage. 

Jordan: Feeding of Animals. Revised. 

Liringston : Field Crop Production. 

Lyon : Soils axd Fertilizers. 

Lyon. Fippin and Buckman : Soils. Their 
Properties and Management. 

Mann : Begun-xin-gs in- Agriculture. 

Montgomery : The Corn Crops. 

Morgan : Field Crops for the Cottox-Belt. 

Mumfor^l : The Breeding c»f Animals. 

Fiper : Forage Plants and Their Culture. 

Sampson : Effective Farming. 

ITiom and Fisk : The Book of Cheese. 

Warren : The Elemexts of Agriculture. 

Warren : Farm Maxagemext. 

WheeJer : Maxures axd Fertilizers. 

Whiff' : Principles of Floriculture. 

Widtsoe : Prexciples of Irrigatiox Prac- 
tice. 



THE SCHOOL-BOOK 
OF FARMING 



A TEXT 

FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

HOMES AND CLUBS 



BY 
L. H. BAILEY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1920 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1920, 
Bv THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1920. 



m '7 1920 



Nortoootj ^ress 

J. S. Gushing Co. -Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 

©aA566398 



STATEMENT 

The essence of this book is to develop a point of view- 
on farming and country life in the minds of the young, 
to explain the relationships of the parts, and to state the 
main reasons underlying the growing of the leading 
crops and the raising of the common animals. 

The author has had good help with the subject-matter, 
particularly from the following persons in their specialties : 
Professor L. E. Hazen, Oklahoma Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College ; Professor DeVoe Meade, Maryland 
State College ; E. F. Phillips, Bureau of Entomology, 
United States Department of Agriculture ; C. A. Rogers, 
Bergen, N. Y. ; Professor H. O. Buckman, M. W. Harper, 
H. E. Ross, E. S. Savage, W. M. Wilson, College of 
Agriculture, Cornell University. The text has been 
read by Professor F. L. Griffin, College of Agriculture, 
University of California, and he has also prepared much 
of the pedagogical material at the ends of the chapters. 

The Census reports have been quoted freely. Although 
not now recent, these reports give comparable statements 
in many subjects ; and it is the desire to develop in pupils 
the habit of using and quoting figures correctly and of 
consulting the Census. It is hoped that the book holds 
the business and money-getting activities of farming to 
approximately their proper emphasis. 

L. H. Bailey. 

January i, 1920. 



CONTENTS 

PAGES 

Topic i. The Farm and the Farmer .... 1-18 

I. The farm divisions, 2. 2. What is a farm?, 3. 3. A 
farm homestead is not necessarily permanent, 5. 4. What 
is a farmer?, 6. 5. Particular kinds of farmers, 8. 
6. Kmds of farming, 10. 7. High vs. low yields, 12. 
8. Agriculture, 13. 9. The extent of agriculture, 13. 
10. The American farmer, 15. 11. Who may be a 
farmer?, 15. 

Topic 2. The Land 19-32 

12. The subdivisions of the land, 19. 13. The clean- 
ing of the land, 21. 14. The draining of the land, 23. 
15. The tilling of the land, 25. 16. The manuring of 
the land, 27. 

Topic 3. The Soil 33-54 

17. What the soil is, 33. 18. Soil particles, 36. 
19. The organic matter of the soil, 37. 20. Soil struc- 
ture, 38. 21. Soil water, 38. 22. Control of soil mois- 
ture, 39. 23. The soil-mulch, 40. 24. Dry-farming and 
irrigation, 41. 25. Soil air, 42. 26. Soil heat, 43. 
27. The soil-solution, 44. 28. Amount of food removed 
by crops, 44. 29. The nitrogen supply, 45- 30- Soil 
acidity, 46. 31. Land lime, 47. 32. Fertilizers and 
their appHcation, 48. 

Topic 4. The Implements 55-69 

33. The machine, 56. 34. The plow, 63. 35. Care 
of machines and implements, 66. 

Topic 5. The Weather 70-89 

36. The atmosphere, 70. 37. The climate, 72. 
38. Pressure of the atmosphere, 73. 39. The wind, 74. 
40. Storms, 75. 41. The tracks of the storms and fore- 
casts, 77. 42. Lightning and thunder and rain, 79. 
43. Clouds and their kinds, 81. 44. The weather map, 



viii CONTENTS 

PAGES 

83. 45. Weather Bureau forecasts, 83. 46. Frosts, 85. 
47. Local climate, 86 

Topic 6. The Plant 90-111 

48. Differences between animals and plants, 90. 49. The 
miracle, 91. 50. The root, and what it does, 92. 
51. The materials from the air, 94. 52. Movement of 
materials in the plant, 94. 53. The fungoids, 96. 
54. The flower, 98, 55. Pollination, 99. 56. Dispersal 
of seeds, 100. 57. Germination, loi. 58. Saving the 
seed, 102. 59. Testing the seed, 102. 60. Propagation 
of plants, 104. 61. The kinds of plants and their names, 
108. 

Topic 7. The Animal 11 2-130 

62. The mother, 112. 63. The companion, 113. 
64. The animal kingdom, 114. 65. The use of animals 
by man, 116. 66. The farm live-stock, 117. 67. Ex- 
tent of animal industry, 119. 68. The nourishment of 
the animal, 120. 69. Hygiene and care, 123. 70. The 
judging of animals, 124. 71. Wild birds, 125. 72. In- 
sects, 126. 

Topic 8. The Market 131-142 

73. The kinds of markets, 131. 74- Location with 
reference to market, 132. 75. Direct to consumer, 132. 
76. The grade and pack, 134. 77. When to sell, 136. 
78. Cooperative marketing, 137. 79. Keeping books, 
139. 80. Cost-accounting, 140. 

Topic 9. The Community i43-i53 

Ci 

81. The community has many trades and professions, 
143. 82. The community center, 144. 83. The poUt- 
ical units, 145. 84. The school enterprise, 146. 85. The 
club enterprises, 147. 86. Farm and home agents, 148. 
87. Rural societies, 149. 88. The church, 149. 89. The 
highway, 150. 90. Leadership, 150. 

Topic 10. Cropping 154-166 

91. The crop-scheme, 155. 92. The green-manuring 
crops, 156. 93. Soiling-crops, 157. 94. Rotation of 



CONTENTS ix 

PAGES 

crops, 158. 95. The breeding of plants, 160. 96. Cul- 
tural requirements, 163. 

Topic ii. Grass and Forage 167-179 

97. The pasture, 168. 98. The meadow, 170. 
99. Clovers, 173. 100. Alfalfa, 175. loi. Cowpea, 
177- 

Topic 12. The Small Grains 180-186 

102. Wheat, 181. 103. Requirements for wheat 
culture, 183. 104. Other cereals, 184. 

Topic 13. The Corn Crops 187-193 

105. Requirements of corn culture, 190. 

Topic 14. The Potatoes 194-199 

106. Extent of the potato crops, 195. 107. The Irish 
potato, 196. 108. The sweet potato, 198. 

Topic 15. Root Crops 200-205 

109. The kinds of root crops, 200. no. The use of 
roots, 202. III. Requirements for root crops, 203. 

Topic 16. Cotton 206-211 

112. What cotton is, 206. 113. Kinds of cotton, 208. 
114. Value of cotton, 208.. 115. Requirements of the 
cotton plant,. 209. 116. How cotton is grown, 209. 

Topic 17. Timber 212-218 

117. Importance of forests, 212. 118. Public values 
of forests, 214. 119. The woodlot, 215. 120. Manag- 
ing the woodlot, 216. 

Topic 18. Horticultural Crops 219-232 

121. The divisions of horticulture, 220. 122. The 
home garden, 221. 123. The public-service garden, 222. 
124. Fruit-growing, 223. 125. Vegetable-growing, 226. 
126. Flower-growing, 227. 

Topic 19. The Animals — Breeding .... 233-247 

127. The importance of better animals, 234. 128. The 
environment, 235. 129. Selection, 237. 130. Heredity, 



X CONTENTS 

PAGES 

239. 131. Prepotency, 240. 132. Variation, 241. 
133. Reasons for variation, 241. 134. Pedigree, 242. 
135. Standards of performance, 243. 

Topic 20. The Feeding of Animals 248-265 

136. The animal body, 248. 137. Demands of the 
animal on its food, 251. 138. The nature of the food, 
252. 139. Classes of foods, 253. 140. Digestion, 253. 
141. The total digestible nutrients, 255. 142. The 
nutritive ratio, 256. 143. Feeding standards, 257. 

144. Example of a ration for 'a dairy cow, 259. 

145. Manurial values of feeds, 261. 

Topic 21. Horses and Mules 266-277 

146. The types and classes of horses, 267. 147. De- 
scriptions of some of the breeds, 270. 148. Breeding 
of farm horses, 272, 149. Feeding the work horse, 273. 
150. Care and diseases, 274. 151. The mule, 275. 

Topic 22. Cattle 278-294 

152. Where cattle come from, 279. 153. Dairy cattle, 
281. 154. The dairy breeds, 282. 155. Management 
of the dairy herd, 284. 156. Two diseases of cattle, 287. 
157. Beef cattle, 288. 158. The beef breeds, 290. 
159. Management of the beef herd, 291. 

Topic 23. Swine 295-305 

160. Importance of swine, 296. 161. The kinds of 
hogs, 297. 162. Breeds of swine, 298. 163. Breeding, 
300. 164. Housing, 301. 165. Feeding and manage- 
ment, 301. 166. Marketing, 302. 167. Diseases, 303. 

Topic 24. Sheep and Goats 306-317 

168. Geographyof sheep-husbandry, 307. 169. Classes 
of sheep, 307. 170. Some of the breeds of sheep, 309. 
171. Breeding, 311. 172. Feed and management, 312. 
173. Parasites and diseases, 314. 174. Goats, 315. 

Topic 25. Poultry 318-336 

175. The egg and the fowl, 320. 176. Origins, 321. 
177. Place on the farm, 323. 178. Farm breeds, 323. 



CONTENTS xi 

PAGES 

179, How to start, 325. 180. Feeding the flock, 326. 
181. Housing, 328. 182. Mating, 330. 183. Hatching 
and brooding, 331. 184. Feeding chicks, 332. 185. Dis- 
eases and pests, 333. 

Topic 26. Bees and Honey 337-353 

186. The honey-bee, 338. 187. The hive, 340. 
188. The honey, 342. 189. Kinds of honey, 345. 
190. HandHng the bees, 346. 191. Swarming, 348. 
192. Diseases of bees, 349. 193. The value of beekeeping 
in North America, 350. 

Topic 27. The Dairy 354-372 

194. Value of milk as human food, 354. 195. Extent 
of milk production, 355. 196. What is dairying, 355. 
197. Composition in general, 357. 198. The fat in milk, 
359. 199. The casein, 359. 200, The milk-sugar, 360. 
201. Albumin, 360. 202. Ash, 360. 203. The germs 
in milk, 361. 204. The cream, 362. 205. Butter, 364. 
206. Cheese, 365. 207. Measuring the amount of fat 
in milk, 366. 208. Pasteurizing, 368. 209. Certified and 
guaranteed milk, 369. 

Topic 28. The Home 373-380 

210. The farm and the home are one, 373. 211. It 
is a family enterprise, 374. 212. The work and the play, 
376. 213. The home premises, 378. 214. The public 
has a right, 379. 





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Over the World the Plowman Goes 

THE SCHOOL-BOOK OF 
FARMING 



TOPIC 1 

THE FARM AND THE FARMER 

The country round about is divided in many ways 
and devoted to many uses. If one were in an airplane 
high enough to see many miles in all directions, these 
divisions would be very striking. Even if we cannot 
ride in an airplane or look from a mountain top, we 
can imagine how the country looks when seen at one 
glance, perhaps as a bird sees it. 

All the pictures one sees taken from a height show 
the country in its different parts, with many dividing 
lines. There are villages, hills, streams, 

. r A ^ r , The divisions 

woods, helds of corn or cotton or apples, pas- of the land- 
tures with herds of cattle, roads, perhaps ^^^P® 
buildings of many kinds and sizes. In some regions 
mountains are seen ; in other regions apparently only 
endless stretches of plain ; in others are rivers and lakes. 

B I 



2 TOPIC 1 

Each of the parts supports its own activity and its 
own kind of people. We would think the parts very 
different if we were to drive from the one to the other, 
rather than to see them all at once from a high place. 




A Bird's-eye View 

The region that lies beyond the cities and towns is 
often called the '' open country." It is the real farming 
The open Country, and the woods and streams. The 
country ^pg^ country is very beautiful and produc- 

tive, and we shall try to understand it. 

I. The Farm Divisions 

In this book we are interested in the divisions known 
as farms. Other persons might be interested in the 
villages, or the highways, the streams and ponds, or 



THE FARM AND THE FARIVIER 3 

the factories. In one region the farms occupy practically 
all the country that we could see from an airplane; in 
another region the farms might appear only The farm 
as patches here and there on hillsides or in divisions 
forests. In the one case the farms would look to be 
square or rectangular ; in the other they would probably 
present very irregular outlines. 

A farm may be of any shape, as well as of any size. 



»p 



?7* . -^ 



mm'. 










In the Open Farming Country 



2. What is a Farm? 

We may define a farm as a piece or bit of the earth's 
surface on which crops or animals are grown for a livelihood 
or an income. Usually we think of a farm , ^ 

-^ . A farm may 

as a tract of dry land ; yet it may be water be land or 
in which fish are bred or reared, or water- ^^*®' 
soaked and devoted to the growing of marsh plants. 
The Chinese, for example, are skillful water farmers, 
utiHzing marshy places and ponds for many kinds of 
water-loving plants and for mollusks and other animals. 
Many of them are duck farmers, living on boats and 
pasturing the ducks along the shores. 



4 TOPIC 1 

The farms themselves are of many kinds, known 
by the products raised on them. 

Most of the farm products of the world are grown 
Humidor on land that is humid, or wet by frequent 
moist regions rains, and the rainfall provides all the mois- 
ture that the crops receive or require. 




/ 



.^^f.^- kUUMMi . , 









4 






In the Irrigated Country 

Other farms are in arid or dry regions and are main- 
tained by irrigation, or the artificial application of water. 
Arid or dry When irrigation is not available, the small 
regions rainfall may be saved by providing a deeply 

tilled soil to hold it and by certain methods of tillage, 
and a crop may be obtained only every other year : this 
is dry-farming. 

A farm is usually also a homestead, providing the 
residence yards and grounds that make up the dweUing 
^, , place of a family. Sometimes the head- 

stead and quarters is spoken of as a farmstead ; it com- 
farmstead prises dwelling, barns, inclosures, and other 
estabhshed parts from which the farm is administered. 



THE FARM AND THE FARMER 



3. A Farm Homestead is not Necessarily 
Permanent 

Conditions may so change from one generation to 
another that certain farms may be combined with others 
under a single ownership, or one farm Farms change 
may be divided into several. Similarly, ^^^^^ 
certain farms may pass out of active cultivation or 
use because it is no longer profitable to operate them; 




-,.»..>.# 











The Rough Back Country, in Which Farms may be Abandoned 

they may return to woodland or merely lie fallow. The 
homesteads on a given area of land may become either 
fewer or more numerous. 

If all the new or unoccupied land in any country were 
on high and rocky hills or mountains, nevertheless the 
people would make farms on these elevations ^^^^ so-called 
as population increased ; then if level and abandoned 
more fertile areas were added to the country 
by exploration, the farmers would tend to move away 



6 TOPIC 1 

from the hard hills, and their farms, becoming attached 
as rear fields to other properties or even falling into 
the possession of the town, might be spoken of as 
'^ abandoned.'' It is no more surprising that farms 
should be abandoned than that mills along the streams 
should be deserted as times change, or that stores 
and shops should be vacated on streets from which 
business has moved. Even in cities there may be 
deserted or tumble-down houses. As times change, 
we must expect habitations and business places to 
change also. 

It is not a good solution, as a rule, to endeavor to settle 

other farmers on these small semiabandoned farms. 

Good farming requires good land and good 

Uses of 1 1 • 1 

abandoned outlets. It is only when population becomes 
lands dense that poor and inaccessible lands 

should be brought into tillage. Not all the earth is 
fit for farming. These partially utiHzed lands may 
be attached to neighboring farms in many cases for 
pasture or other uses; or they may be purchased by 
the town, county, or state for the growing of timber. 
It is sometimes an indication of progress when these 
lands are abandoned for ordinary cropping, or at least 
when no longer used as homesteads. 

4. What is a Farmer? 

One who makes a living or income by raising plants 

and rearing animals, and whose attention is devoted 

to these occupations, is a farmer. Yet this 

armer (jg^nition does not distinguish the different 

classes of farmers. 



THE FARM AND THE FARMER 7 

One who owns the land and rents it is a landlord, 
although often called a farmer. One who does not 
own the land but works on farms for wages is ^^^ i^^^i^^^ 
a farm-laborer. 

The one who owns or rents the land and conducts the 
operations on it for the proceeds it yields, is j^^nagers, 
frequently spoken of as the real farmer. We tenants, and 

. , . . . operators 

may recognize another important group 

known as farm managers; these persons are paid by 

salary to conduct the farm for the owner. A tenant 

is a farmer who leases or rents the farm from another, 

either for cash rental or ''on shares." These three 

classes comprise the farm operators, — the farmer who 

owns and works his land, the farmer who rents his 

land, the farmer who is employed to manage the land. 

These are distinguished from the landlord on the one 

hand, and from the farm-laborer on the other, although 

many of the laborers may be renting or buying farms 

of their own. The operating farmer is the bulwark of 

the nation. 

Sometimes several persons, having money to invest, 
form a corporation or partnership for the purpose of 
owning and administering a farm. That is, "Syndicate 
the farm is owned by a company or syndi- farming" 
cate rather than by one person ; but the way of farming 
remains the same as under a single ownership. 

In this book we are not to study statistics; yet the 
pupil should acquire the habit of learning 
what the Census figures mean. The tenure ^^^^^[^ ' ^^^ 
or occupancy of the farms in the United managers in 
States as reported by the last Census, 1910, ^^^^^t ^^ 
was as follows: 



8 TOPIC 1 

All farms in United States 6,361,502 

Operated by owners, who, however, may rent additional 

land 3,948,722 

Operated by tenants of all kinds 2,354,676 

Operated by managers 5Sjio4 




Farms in the United States 

In Canada, the land in farms in 191 1 was 109,948,988 
acres, the number of farms being 714,646. Of the total 
acreage, 98,866,067 acres were owned and 11,082,921 
acres rented. 



5. Particular Kinds of Farmers 

The amateur is a person who devotes himself to an 
object or occupation for the love of it, not as a means of 

livelihood. The word "amateur" means 
J^^IT^^^^"^ a lover or admirer ; yet it is often improperly 

used as if it meant merely a novice or be- 
ginner. A person may be an amateur in plants or animals ; 
even if he grows them for food or other uses, his enterprise 



THE FARM AND THE FARMER 



is not farming, for the farm elements of cost and of labor 
and of marketing do not enter. However successful 
the suburbanite or the home gardener may be with his 
operations, however great his yields or the produce of 
his bees or poultry, if he secures his livelihood or main- 
tenance-income by other means he cannot be called a 
real farmer. He may properly undertake things that 

it would not pay the 
farmer to attempt. 

The fancier is a person 
who devotes himself to 
one particular crop or 
animal, making collec- 
tions of the different 
kinds. One may be 

a fancier of 

f. The fancier 
pigeons, of 

particular kinds of sheep 
Farms in Canada ^r dcgs, of peonies, toma- 

toes, or cherries. The 
fancier may be an amateur or a real farmer; in the 
latter case he makes his livelihood by selling his prod- 
ucts to other fanciers or as breeding-stock to farmers 
and amateurs ; in any case he becomes an authority on 
the particular kinds of animals or plants that he fancies. 
The specialist in farming is one who devotes oneself 
to a single product, or to a particular group or combina- 
tion of products, rather than to general or mis- 
cellaneous operations. Often he devotes 
himself to varieties or breeds rather than to their 
products. One person might study the varieties of 
wheat and desire to grow as many kinds as possible. 




The specialist 



lO 



TOPIC 1 



making a collection of them, perhaps selling the grain 
for seed; another might specialize in growing wheat 
in quantity for the market, limiting himself to one or 
two varieties; another might be a broader specialist, 
growing wheat and other cereals exclusively, and he would 
be a grain-farmer. So there are apple-growers, dairy- 
farmers, poultrymen, sheep-breeders, seed-growers, 
market-gardeners, rose-growers. 

6. Kinds of Farming 

Mixed farming is the growing of a more or less mis- 

^ cellaneous combination of staple crops and 

diversified products rather than one line or specialty. 

farming r^y^ -^ ^-^^ usual type of farming. Its basis 

is mostly grass or other forage ; it comprises cattle and 







In the Sheep-herding Country 



other farm animals, grains, potatoes, beans, and the like ; 
the farm generally has a garden for vegetables and some- 
times for flowers ; also fruit-trees, poultry, and perhaps 
bees. The farm carries a general line of machinery 
and other equipment. It produces a large part of the 



THE FARM AND THE FARMER il 

food for the farmer's family. Mixed farming is some- 
times called diversified farming. 

Most farming in North America is conducted on an ex- 
tensive basis, with many acres and large field operations. 
Usually the acres do not produce all the yield Extensive 
of which they are capable, and the total de- farming 
sired produce is secured from many acres. Mixed farming 
and stock-raising are mostly extensive in their method. 

Other kinds of farming are intensive, the word sig- 
nifying that much attention is given to every acre or 
part so that its yield may be very high ; the farms are 
small, usually only ten or twenty acres or even less. 
The most perfect kinds are the various forms intensive 
of gardening, such as market-gardening and farming 
glass-house cropping. The commercial growing of let- 
tuce under glass and of carnations, roses, violets, and 
the like are excellent examples of intensive farming. 

The immense farms in a new country tend to break 
up into smaller units as population increases. These 
farms call for good business management. The sizes of 
but they are seldom well farmed so far as ^^""^ 
the best use of the soil and resources is concerned. On 
the other hand, the general mixed farms in the older 
parts of the country tend to grow larger, as farmers 
employ more machinery and learn how to make the 
best use of their capital and equipment. About cities, 
where land is high-priced and markets for special produce 
are close at hand, very small areas may be utilized as 
farms ; practically the entire area may be covered with 
glass in some cases. The average size of farms in the 
United States in 1910 was 138.1 acres; in Canada in 
191 1 it was 153.8 acres. 



12 



TOPIC 1 



Whether a farm shall be extensively or intensively 
operated will depend on the size, the tax-value of the land, 
the market, labor supply, and other factors. 

7. High vs. Low Yields 

Extensive farming is as good of its kind as is intensive 
farming. Usually it does not pay to produce the highest 
Value of acre-yields. This is true when land is rela- 

high yields tively cheap and labor dear, when the invested 
capital is small, when fertilizer cannot be had at reasonable 

rates, when markets 
are far away, when the 
product is one of the 





The Yield to the Man is More Important than the Yield to the Acre 

staple foodstuffs and the price is determined by general 
trade conditions, and so on. It is sometimes more eco- 
nomical to produce a given yield on two acres than on 
one acre. 

The farmer may exercise his skill and apply his knowl- 
The acre and edge in extensive farming as completely as 
the man jj^ intensive operations. The true measure 

of the effectiveness of farming is not the yield to the 
acre but the yield to the man. 



THE FARM AND THE FARMER 13 

8. Agriculture 

Farming is the actual business or occupation of pro- 
ducing supplies from the earth. Agriculture is a broader 
term, including the practice of farming and what agri- 
the general situations and conditions under culture is 
which farm people live. Thus we speak of agriculture as 
one of the great affairs of the people ; its yield in supplies 
is the main support of civilization. 

Agriculture may be variously divided. All the kinds 
of farming we have mentioned are included in it. The 
growing of fruits, flowers, vegetables, and Kinds of 
ornamental plants is a division of it known as agriculture 
horticulture; the growing of timber is /^re^/ry; of flowers, 
floriculture ; of vegetables, vegetable-gardening or oleri- 
culture; of fruits, pomology or fruit-growing ; of grapes, 
viticulture; of bees, apiculture; of silk, sericulture; of birds, 
aviculture. The pasturing of animals is gra^wg; the term 
is applied particularly to pasturing of cattle and sheep. 

Agriculture is sometimes spoken of as husbandry, 
although the term refers more particularly to the prac- 
tical operations of farming. It was used more 
commonly in former times than now; at "^ ^^ ^ 
present its most frequent use is in the terms animal 
husbandry and poultry husbandry. 

9. The Extent of Agriculture 

The fundamental or most important single occupation 
of mankind is agriculture. Probably three-fourths of 
the human race, among civilized men, are importance 
engaged in agriculture of one form or another. °^ agriculture 
As knowledge and invention increase, each farmer is able 



14 TOPIC 1 

to raise more produce. To a certain extent machinery 
takes the place of men. In highly developed agriculture, 
therefore, many men may be released from food-produc- 
tion to the trades and manufactures, in which they are 
much needed ; the proportion of farmers tends to become 
less ; but we increasingly need better farmers. 

The Thirteenth Census of the United States (1910) 
reports 46.2 per cent of the total land area to be in farms. 
The census The acreage in farms, was 878,798,325; of 
figures ^]^jg acreage somewhat more than one-half is 

reported as improved land and the remainder as wood- 
land and otherwise unimproved. The improved land 
at that time represented only one-fourth of the total 
land area of the country. The total value of farm 
property was nearly 41 billions of dollars. The capital 
invested in manufactures was about 18-J^ bilHons of dollars, 
and in mines and quarries nearly 3I- billions. It will be 
seen how greatly the capital in farms exceeded that in 
other forms of industry ; the difference is seen to be even 
greater in Canada. 

In Canada the value of farm property in 191 1 was 
more than 4 billions of dollars; in 1910 the capital 
invested in manufactures was upwards of 
I billion dollars. 

Of the total population of the United States in 19 10, — • 
nearly 92 millions of persons, — about 42^ millions were 
The number classed as Urban (city) and about 49-^ mil- 
of people iJQj^g ^5 rural (country). Not all the people 

reported as rural were farmers. The Census reported 
38,167,336 persons of ten years and above engaged in all 
occupations. Those occupations or classes comprising 
more than 2 million persons are as follows : 



THE FARM AND THE FARMER 15 

Transportation 2,637,671 persons 

Trades 3,614,670 " 

Domestic and personal service 3,772,174 " 

Manufacturing and mechanical industries . . 10,658,881 " 

Agriculture, including forestry 12,659,203 " 

In Canada the total population in 1911 was 7,206,643 ; 
of this, 3,281,141 was urban and 3,925,502 was rural. 

10. The American Farmer 

In many parts of the world the working farmer is a 
peasant, forming a lower class, of inferior social rank. 
One of the marks of progress in recent times is 
the giving to the peasants of greater political 
freedom and of equal rights with other citizens before 
the law. 

In North America the farmer has the same rights and 

standing as other men, and there are no established 

limitations on his ambition or fixed social _,, , 

The farmer in 

standards to which he must conform. His North 
place among his fellows is determined mostly ®"^^ 
by his own ability, preparation, and efforts. 

II. Who May be a Farmer? 

The occupation of farming calls for persons of good 
health and strength, of industrious and saving habits, 
of thorough knowledge of the business, and Qualifications 
of a genuine desire for the work and for life °^ ^ farmer 
in the open country. It is not a refuge for those poor 
in health, for those unsuccessful in other pursuits, or 
those tired of the city. The occupation needs con- 
viction, ability to stand alone, and positive vigorous 
preparation. 



i6 TOPIC 1 

Much of the preparation lies in the type of mind, or the 
way in which one looks at it. One must think in terms 
As a man oi the country, rather than in terms of the 
thinketh ^ity. The intending farmer must accept the 

situations as they are, adapt himself to them, and im- 
prove them gradually as best he can. No longer should 
a person fall into farming because there is no other 
occupation for him. He should fit himself for the 
business as carefully as the engineer or the physician 
prepares. 

The preparation for farming is of two kinds, — ex- 
perience and education, each of which is now essential. 
Experience The experience is gained by working on a 
and education {^iYm before one begins to farm for oneself. If 
this experience is gained before college, the course of 
instruction will have more meaning. Here the farm 
boy has the advantage ; yet the city boy may learn the 
business well if he undertakes seriously to gain the 
necessary experience. Schooling cannot take the place 
of experience. 

The farmer undertakes a life work. He cannot change 
occupation often and still be successful. It requires 
It requires years to put land in the best and most pro- 
time ductive condition, and to gather the equip- 
ment, grow the orchards, build up the herds. Every 
year's experience counts toward additional success with 
the land on which it was acquired. To succeed in farming, 
as in anything else, one should "feel the call." 

To one who is adapted to the occupation and who has a 
good farm, the vocation of farming offers a very satisfac- 
tory way of making the passage of life. 



THE FARM AND THE FARMER 1 7 

REVIEW 

What are the parts in the open country? What are the 
natural divisions of it ? 

What are the leading parts or divisions in the school district in 
which you live ? 

What are the shapes of farms as one would see them on a 

map? 

Define the word ''farm"; give your idea of what a farm is. 

Consult the dictionary. 

What is grown or raised on farms ? 

What are humid and arid regions? What is irrigation? 
Dry-farming? 

What is a homestead and a farmstead? 

What is meant by "abandoned farms"? Are the same lands 
always retained year after year as separate farms? 

Give your idea of a farmer; of a landlord; tenant; farm 
operator; manager. 

What do the figures mean on page 8 ? 

What is your idea of an amateur? fancier? speciahst? Do 
you know any such persons ? 

Describe some of the kinds of farming, as : mixed or diversified ; 
intensive; extensive. 

What do you say about heavy yields and low yields? Does 
it always pay the farmer to produce the heaviest possible yields 
to the acre? Why? 

Give your idea of the meaning of the word "agriculture." 
How does it differ from farming? Name some of the different 
kinds of agriculture. 

In three or four sentences, state how extensive or important 
agriculture is. 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

What is the kind or type of farming followed by most of the 
farmers in your community? What are the five most important 
types of farming in the State ? 

Have the farms in your part of the State increased or decreased 
in size within the past ten years? 
c 



l8 TOPIC 1 

How many farm operators in your county own their farms? 
How many rent the land they cultivate ? What is the percentage 
of farm owners in the State? (Consult the pubHshed Census re- 
turns or ask your county agricultural agent for this information.) 
Has the percentage of farm owners in your State increased or de- 
creased in the past ten years ? 

What is meant by the Census? How often is it taken, and by 
whom ? 

Make a Ust of the farmers in your school district and classify 
them under the headings : Amateurs ; Fanciers ; Specialists ; and 
Diversified Farmers. 

In what part of your State is farming conducted on an ex- 
tensive basis? on an intensive basis? What is the average size 
of the farms in your county? in the State? 

Endeavor to find out the number of hours of human labor it 
required to produce a bushel of wheat before the invention of 
the binder and thresher. Now. 

Make a list of the more important crops raised in your county 
and place after each crop the average acre-yield. What is the 
average yield in the State? The average yield for the United 
States? 

Make a Hst of the more important manufacturing industries 
of the United States that are directly dependent on agriculture for 
their raw material. 

Make a list of the things you think a farmer should know. 
Why should the farmer of the future have more education than 
the farmer of to-day ? 

SPECIAL PROBLEM 

Make a map of your school district, or township, drawing it 
to scale. Indicate on this map the improved and unimproved 
highways, streams, railroads, schools, churches, and farms. Within 
the space occupied by each farm place the name of the farm opera- 
tor (or a number to represent him) ; also mention (perhaps on the 
margin) the kind of farm, — whether it is a dairy, poultry, fruity 
or mixed farm. See map on page 32. 



TOPIC 2 

THE LAND 

One cannot think of a farm without land. In a green- 
house the pots and the benches contain earth. If one 
were raising oysters, yet they rest on the earth, and much 
of the food of the oyster comes directly or indirectly 
from the land. The sohd earth is verily the basis of 
farming. 

The good farmer knows his land. It is one of his 
greatest joys to know what every field is like and what 
it will produce best. He knows his fields in He knows his 
summer and winter, when they are dry and ^^^^ 
when they are wet. Every year he learns something 
new about them. 

12. The Subdivisions of the Land 

Rarely is a farm comprised of a single field. It would 
be a strange farm were it so. 

At first the farmstead is set off. This is on the high- 
way. It is on land ''high and dry." Let us hope that 
it commands good views, that the buildings The site for 
do not obstruct these views, and that it is ^^^ residence 
also midway of the side that Hes on the highway rather 
than on one corner of the property. 

The fields should be easy to reach from the farmstead. 
Much time may be lost in going back and forth to small 

19 



20 



TOPIC 2 



remote fields. It is easy to compute time expended in 
such travel and to estimate its value. 

The divisions should be as few as possible, and oblong 
in shape with no long points or irregular corners. The 
The divisions object is to save useless turns of teams and 
of the farm men, and to allow the freer use of machinery. 
If the property 
is a mixed farm, 
the regular fields 
should be of some- 
what equal size to 
promote good ro- 
tation of crops. 

In the level 
country of the 
Middle West, 
where the town- 
ships and subdi- 
visions are rectan- 
gular, the layout 

Regular and of the 

irregular fields j^^^ jg usually simple. In other parts of the 
country the original lines of survey may be irregular, and 
fields have been added piece by piece as cleared from the 
forest; the result is usually too many fields, too much 
land occupied by fences, and too great cost for upkeep. 

The taking down of old fences, subduing of fence-rows, 
and redividing of the land is one of the first requisites 

in many farms to make them ''handy" and 
Follow a plan . . ^ i • • i 

economical. In some cases the existmg sub- 
division is so faulty that a direct outlay may be neces- 
sary to reorganize the property at one time ; usually, 




An Arrangement of Farm Fields (Ohio, Falconer). 



THE LAND 21 

however, the most economical way is to rearrange the 
fields and division lines gradually, as time and labor 
can be spared. In either case, the work should follow a 
definite plan, and a map should be made. 

The farm should be so organized as to allow live-stock 
and teams to be driven to any part of it. If the property 
is large, a lane or farm road may lead down 

1 r 1 1 Ml • • in The lane 

the nelds. bucn an interior road allows access 

to any part at any time, whatever may be the crops on 

the fields. The lane need not be waste land ; it may be 

pastured, or used in part for bees, colony-houses for 

poultry, or other purposes. The lane sometimes skirts 

a bluff or a creek, on land that is not tillable. 

This road-division or lane is better than to go through 
one field to reach another, if the land readily lends itself 
to such a layout ; but some farm lands are so valuable 
that even a narrow driveway cannot be spared. Some- 
times the land so lies that the public highway is utilized 
as the farm road. 

The point is that all fields, by one means or another, 
should be accessible for hauling and for the transfer 
of animals, with good gates or bars and a The way to 
graded entrance; and there should be the fields 
bridges or culverts over ditches and streams. 

13. The Cleaning of the Land 

In the most effective field every foot of land inside the 
fences is of use in the growing of crops. This means that 
stumps, rocks, brush, and rubbish are removed. In 
permanent pastures, however, there may be trees. 

The farmer should be able to plow a straight clean 
furrow, and to make a seed-bed free from clods and 



22 TOPIC 2 

weeds. The coming of the tractor will demand better 

cleaning of the fields. It cannot be used readily in 

rough, stony, and stumpy fields. 

Bad weeds of a permanent nature usually follow some 

fault in the farming. The tillage, for example, may not 

have been good ; the seeding may have been 
Unclean farms , , i r i .i . .• 

poor and the seed foul; the rotations may 

have been too long in grass and the sod become thin; 

roadsides, ditch-banks, and waste places may not have 

been cleaned ; the manure may have scattered the seeds. 

A few weeds here and there or on the lawn or in the 

garden may be destroyed one by one, but usually a 

change in the farm practice is the only remedy for bad 

weeds that are abundant on the property. 

A weed is a plant that is not wanted. It may be oats 
growing in a potato field or potatoes growing in an oat 
What is a field. Dandelions are weeds when growing in 
weed? lawns but are coveted plants when, in im- 

proved form, they are grown in vegetable-gardens for food. 
Yet some plants are always known as weeds. The pig- 
weeds are examples, but not the burdock, which is grown 
by the Japanese for its edible root. 

Ten general principles for the control or prevention of 

weeds may be mentioned (Georgia, Manual of Weeds) : 

„ , I. Allow no seeds to ripen. 

Meet the . ^ 

weeds more 2. Kill while m the seedlmg stage. 

than half way ^ Induce autumn germination of the 

seeds of annual plants by surface tillage after harvest. 

4. Never plow under weeds bearing mature seeds. 

5. Thoroughly compost all stable manures that are 
known to contain the seeds of bad weeds. 

6. Sow clean seeds. 



THE LAND 



23 



7. Be on the watch for weeds new to the locahty. 

8. Call in the aid of grazing animals, particularly 
sheep. 

9. Practice rotation of crops. 

10. Enact better weed laws and enforce them. 

Certain weeds are killed by poisonous appHcations, 
called herbicides. These should be apphed only by 
persons who are skilled in their use. 

14. The Draining of the Land 

We drain the land for two purposes, — to improve it 
directly for crop-production, and to remove '^bad spots" 
that interfere with __ '.,: 

the working of the 
remainder of the 
field. Often the 
efficiency of an 
otherwise good 

field is greatly re- ^^^»SS^&\,-ffli;^^^^^^$^^^^^;%^^^^^^^^ 
duced by a very 
few wet or springy 
places that pre- 
vent the fitting of ^ System of Underdrains at Regular Intervals. 
, , . — Adapted to land wet throughout and on which 

the land m proper intensive cropping is to be practiced. Note the 
season. positions of the branches or 'Materals." (Fippin.) 

Drains are of two kinds, — those on the surface, or 
"open drains"; those beneath the surface, Kinds of 
often called "covered" or ''blind drains," ^^^ins 
usually laid with tile. 

The surface drains or ditches may provide the outlets 
for tile drains, particularly on flat lands where natural 
outlets are few. They remove flood water, affording 




24 TOPIC 2 

protection to crops m the break-up of winter and in 
heavy rains. They are really creeks, taking away the 
surplus surface water much as natural brooks and rills 
remove it from other places. 

The underdrain not only removes the surplus water, 
but it deepens the soil because it lowers the place of 
Underdrain- Standing water (or the water-table). It 
age therefore makes the land more productive. 

It introduces air, which standing water may exclude. By 
these actions it stimulates the activities in the soil and 
improves its structure. As roots may extend deeper 
in tile-drained land, so may the crops stand drought 
better as well as escape the effects of too much water. 
Even on hillsides there may be wet and springy places 
badly in need of under drainage. Good tile drainage 
practically increases the size of the farm by making the 
land deeper. 

Tile-drains may be single, or they may be combined 
into a system ; in the latter case there is one main drain 
Draining by into which one or more side drains are con- 
means of tiles nected. The water enters the drain through 
the joints between the tiles ; therefore, hard-burned tiles 
should be used, as they are more durable. The grade 
should be as uniform as possible, and the fall need not 
be great : one foot or less in five hundred will carry the 
water readily if the tiles are well laid in an accurately 
leveled ditch, although a greater fall is to be preferred. 
The tile may be two to three feet deep in heavy clay land, 
and three to four feet deep in looser land. In clay lands, 
the drain should be usually three to four rods apart; 
in sandy or loamy lands, twice this distance. 



THE LAND 25 

15. The Tilling of the Land 

Tilling is performed by the use of many implements, 
such as hand-weeders, hoes, rakes, spades, plows, harrows, 
rollers, and various kinds of cultivators. We 

. , n 1. . Tillage 

till the land to provide the proper conditions 

for the growing of plants. After the land is cleared, 

drained, and cleaned, the surface of it is inverted by the 

plow, burying the vegetation, and exposing the bare 

earth for the preparation of a seed-bed. 

By heavy implements, if the land is hard and rough, 

the bare surface is crumbled, mellowed, and leveled; 

then by smaller-toothed harrows the soil is , , 

-' . 1 1 T 1 '^^® seed-bed 

put in condition to receive the seeds. In the 

garden the seed-bed is prepared with hand tools and the 

surface is made very fine and soft ; under such conditions, 

the plants should make a quick and strong start. Tillage 

is sometimes spoken of as '' cultivation.'' 

Aside from preparing the seed-bed, tillage also keeps the 
land in condition after the plants are established. Some 
crops are tilled until midsummer or later : we The tilled 
speak of them as the ''tilled crops," as corn, ^^^^P^ 
potatoes, cotton, beans. Those not tilled we usually 
call ''sowed crops," as the small grains (wheat, oats, 
barley, rice), although in some countries these crops may 
be tilled by hand. When labor is high priced, the tillage 
is performed by horse tools rather than hand tools ; we 
now seldom see persons hoeing corn. 

Tillage sets many forces at work, as we shall see in 
Topic 3. It also destroys insects and weeds, whattiUage 
buries litter, decreases the breeding-places ^^®^ 
of vermin. It prepares a deep root-hold for plants, 



26 TOPIC 2 

thereby increasing the producing-power of the land and 
the size of the farm. 

One of the great betterments in agriculture within 
recent time is the improvement of land-working tools, 
Tools for 3,nd the use of them in the place of slow and 

tillage expensive hand labor. In principle the till- 

age tools of to-day may be like those of centuries ago ; 
but they have been greatly developed, and will now 
perform work for which the former tools were not fit. 

Once the plow was a crooked stick ; now it is one of the 
most effective, as perhaps it is the most useful, of the 
implements made by man. Once the harrow was a piece 
of brush drawn by a man ; now it is an implement of many 
patterns, each type adapted to a particular kind of work. 

Once it was the practice to let the land lie fallow now 
and then, to "rest" and recuperate and to allow it to be 
cleaned of weeds; "summer-fallowing" was a familiar 
practice. Now we have better tools and machines with 
which to prepare the land and work it, and to keep it 
always in order ; and we have learned how to fertilize it. 

We may classify the tillage tools as follows : 

I. Tools for breaking the land : spade, mattock, plow. 
Kinds of 2. Tools for preparing the seed-bed : rake, 

tillage tools harrow, roller. 

3. Tools for maintaining the land in proper cultivation : 
hoe, wheel-hoe, weed-killers, cultivator. 

We may also classify these tools by the way in which 
they perform their work. The breaking tools (as the 
What the plow) tear up, cleave, and invert the earth, 

tools do burying whatever may grow or lie on top of 

it. The cultivator is really a group or company of small 
plows attached to one framework ; it lifts and pushes the 



THE LAND 27 

soil, sometimes turning it to some extent, but it cannot 
perform the breaking of hard land or sod. Some of the 
harrows, with wide blades, are practically cultivators on 
a large scale ; others have straight small teeth that break 
the soil surface into fine particles and leave it mellow. 
The roller compacts loose lands, forcing the lumps together 
and perhaps crushing them. The hoes are used in human 
hands and therefore may perform many kinds of labor. 
They lengthen a man's arms, give him greater leverage, 
and provide a cutting edge for chopping the soil and 
weeds and for shaping the surface. 

Man would be powerless were it not for his tillage 
tools. 

16. The Manuring of the Land 

By experience man has learned that the producing- 
power of the land is increased by the use of barn manures. 
These materials improve the structure or 
physical character of the soil, and they also manures 
add plant-food. This being true, a farmer ^^^^^^P^^^^ 
should no more waste the manure than the crops after 
they are grown. 

In the early days on the fertile prairies, manure was 
piled in great heaps and burned. This destruction has 
now passed. Yet manure may be wasted Loss in 
even when it remains in piles, by losing its manures 
valuable parts. This loss arises from the heating or 
firing of the manure in the piles (which is a process of 
fermentation) , and by leaching from rain and particularly 
by the water from roofs. 

The fermentation or heating may be prevented by 
keeping the pile firm or compact, by forking it over 



28 



TOPIC 2 



frequently, and by adding sufficient water to keep the 
mass moist but not to result in leaching. 

The loss in manure by leaching is easily prevented. It 
is one of the commonest leaks on the farm. 

The best way in general to utilize barn manure is to 
spread it on the fields as fast as the wagon-loads accu- 
How manures niulate. The manure-spreading machines are 
are used ygj-y useful in this work. It should not be 

dropped in small piles and left, for this fertilizes the field 
very unevenly. 




^-^^1 ^^S^^t^. 



\± 



-Jlc 



V' 



)4c- 









Spreading Manure 



In practice, however, it is impossible to drive on the 
fields at some times of the year, and at other times they 
The covered ni3,y be in crop. Therefore, the manure 
stable must be stored. The best storage, when 

there is plenty of bedding, is undoubtedly in a covered 
barnyard, which is a shed or basement with a cement 
floor on which the manure, with plenty of bedding, is 
spread. The cattle or sheep are allowed to tramp on it. 



THE LAND 



29 



for the place is made an exercise yard for the animals. 
The liquids are then likely to be absorbed and saved. 
From here the manure may be taken directly to the field, 
or it may be stored temporarily under an outer shed, or 
even out of doors for a time if away from the eaves. 

Sometimes the manure is composted, which means that 
it is allowed to decay so that it is more readily mixed 
with the soil and its plant-food is more avail- ^ 

^ Compost 

able. The pile is forked over two or three 

times, to prevent heating and to mix all the materials 




Covered Barnyard 



thoroughly. Gardeners usually have a compost pile, to 
which they add leaves and garden refuse as well as 
manure; sometimes sod is mixed with it. When the 
material is thoroughly rotted, which requires a year or 
more, it becomes finely divided and friable. It is then 
very useful in the garden, as dressing on the lawn, or 
in any special plantation. Every farmstead should have 
a compost pile in some rear corner. 



30 TOPIC 2 

While the importance of animal manure is recognized, 
it is difficult to state the value in figures. The value 
varies with the kind of animal and its age, the kind of 
feed, the way in which the manure is kept, and the 
quantity and kind of bedding or litter that is in it. 

The quantity of manure to be applied to the acre varies 
widely, depending 

How much I- on the quality of the manure; 

manure to use 3. on the condition or fertiHty of the land ; 

3. on the crop to be grown. 
Market gardeners are heavy users of stable manures. 
They must have large yields and quick results. Usually 
their lands are light. They sometimes apply forty to 
fifty tons to the acre, whereas ten to fifteen tons may be 
considered the average application. When the supply 
is insufficient, it is applied to certain fields or even only 
to the hardest or least fertile places in those fields. 

The careful farmer takes much pains to save the 
manure. He keeps the barns, stables, and yards clean ; 
they are then attractive as well as efficient. 

REVIEW 

What is the basis of farming? 

How are farms subdivided ? In what part should the farmstead 
be? 

What can you say about size of fields? shape? arrange- 
ment ? What do you understand by the layout of the farm ? 

If the layout is not satisfactory, how may it be remedied? Of 
what use is a map of the farm ? 

What about the lane ? 

Wliat is meant by clean land? 

What is a weed ? Why are some farms so weedy? 

Name the ways in which weeds may be destroyed. 



THE LAND 31 

What do you understand by the draining of the land? How 
does draining improve the land ? 

What are the kinds of drains? 

How are tile-drains laid? 

What do you mean by tillage ? What does tillage do ? 

How have improved tools aided tillage? What is summer- 
fallowing ? 

Name the classes of tillage tools. Describe the work of the 
plow, cultivator, harrow, roller, hoe. 

What is meant by the manuring of the land ? 

What is the heating of manure ? 

Describe the ways of handling, applying, and storing farm 
manures. How much is applied to the acre ? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Find out, by actual measurement, the average amount of land 
occupied by a fence-row on your farm or a neighbor's. How many 
square feet of land is occupied by the boundary land, and cross 
fences, or field fences on your farm? What part of an acre 
is this? 

Collect and mount five of the most common weeds that grow 
on your farm or in your section. Label properly, giving both the 
common and scientific names of the weeds. (Names may be found 
in many bulletins and books.) 

Observe some of the common weeds that grow in the field or 
along the roadsides. What peculiarities of each (structure of the 
plant or fruit or habit of growth) enable it to become a nuisance 
or pest? 

Demonstrate some of the benefits of tillage by planting wheat, 
oat, or barley seeds in each of two tin cans, one filled with good 
garden soil and the other with rough cloddy soil. 

Make a list of the tilled crops and the sowed crops in your sec- 
tion, and opposite each crop give the names of the tillage imple- 
ments used. 

How is stable manure stored and spread in your section? 
For what crops is it commonly used? How many manure- 
spreaders are there in your school district? What is the cost of 
a manure-spreader? What kinds of manure do the farmers like 
best? 



32 



TOPIC 2 



SPECIAL PROBLEM 

Make a map of the home farm, or of some neighboring farm, 
drawing it to scale (for example, let one inch represent ten rods), 
showing the arrangement and relative sizes of the various culti- 
vated fields, woodlots, pastures, lanes, and the farmstead. 




A Rural Community (Minnesota, adapted from Warber). 



TOPIC 3 

THE SOIL 

The soil beneath us and the atmosphere above us, — 
these provide all the conditions for life on the earth. 
We do not know any living thing independent of soil 
and air. The farmer works particularly with the soil, 
and now we must study it. 

Soil is the thin soft layer of the earth in which plants 
grow. In proportion to the size of the earth, the soil 
is not as thick as the skin of an apple. Roots The root-hold 
extend only a few feet at most. Of the agri- °^ *^^ ®^^*^ 
cultural crops, alfalfa probably goes deepest. The roots 
of it have been traced, in dry climates, to more than 
twenty feet deep. Most crops, in ordinary moist climates, 
do not extend their roots more than three or four feet, 
and often very much less. 

The soil is not "dirt." It is a very complex body, 
formed from many materials. It abounds in chemical 
changes. It is full of microscopic life, each The soil be- 
kind of organism performing a definite part. ^®^*^ °^^ ^®®* 
It contains air and water. It absorbs the heat of the 
sun. All living things return to it. Nothing is more 
wonderful than the soil on which we walk. 

17. What the Soil Is 

Speaking in the broadest way, the soil is formed of 
two substances, — mineral material and organic matter. 
D 33 



34 TOPIC 3 

The former, coming from the crumbling or breaking 
down of rocks, usually makes up the greater part. The 
Mineral and latter, coming from the decay of plants and 
organic matter animals, occurs in smaller amounts, in the 
best soil not often exceeding ten per cent of the mass. 

This mixture of mineral and organic material is more 
or less open or porous. Even the hardest soil is not 
The spaces solid. A good soil may contain as much as 
in the soil f^f^y ^o sixty per cent of pore space, which 
is partially filled with water. Without the water, plants 
could not use the earth either as a foothold or as a source 
of food. 

The earth and its atmosphere are made up of '^ ele- 
ments," or substances that cannot be divided or separated 

into other substances ; they are not com- 
The elements r • i i • i 

pounds, but are of simple chemical nature. 

Between eighty and ninety of these elements are now rec- 
ognized. Iron is one of them ; sulfur is one, and copper, 
gold, silver, nickel, lead. These that we have mentioned 
are solids at the temperature in which we live ; mercury 
is fluid ; others are gases. 

Some of the gases, as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, exist 
in nature as elements (not in compounds), but most of 
The com- the eighty and more elementary substances 
pounds ^Ye naturally in combination with other ele- 

ments. Thus iron ore is a combination, and the iron is 
freed by the processes of smelting. So the soil is made 
up of endless compounds. The elements in fertilizers are 
all in combination. 

To make it easy to write about these elements and 
compounds, the chemist uses symbols (let- 

e sym o s ^^^^^ .^ place of the entire word. Thus, 



THE SOIL 35 

N = nitrogen S = sulfur 

O = oxygen Ca = calcium 

H = hydrogen Mg = magnesium 

C = carbon Fe = iron (Latin ferriiMy iron) 

P = phosphorus K = potassium (kalium) 

Combinations are readily expressed, as H2O, water ; 
KNO3, nitrate of potassium or saltpeter ; HNO3, nitric 
acid ; H2SO4, sulfuric acid ; CeHioOs, starch. 

Ten elements are absolutely necessary for The necessary 
good plant growth. They are : elements 



From Air and Water 


From the 


Soil Itself 


Carbon 


Nitrogen 


Magnesium 


Oxygen 


Phosphorus 


Iron 


Hydrogen 


Potassium 


Sulfur 


Nitrogen 


Calcium 





While all of these elements are necessary, three need par- 
ticular attention because they are so likely to be either 
lacking or unavailable. These three, called The three 
the ''primary agricultural elements," are essentials 
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Materials contain- 
ing these elements and called ''fertilizers" are often added. 

The nitrogen exists in the soil in the organic matter, 
in very complex combinations. Bacteria (which are 
"germs") break it down into simple products that can 
be utilized by roots. Common soils usually carry less 
than .2 per cent of nitrogen and one-half that amount of 
phosphorus. Potassium is abundant in most soils, often 
above 2 per cent. However, it is generally very securely 
locked up (that is, it is in such insoluble form that plants 
cannot use it) and the crop often needs an addition in a 
fertilizer. 



36 TOPIC 3 

When the elements or compounds are soluble in soil 

water and are otherwise acceptable to the plant, they are 

said to be '' available." That is, the plant 

Availability ^ r i 

can use them. No matter how much of the 
desirable elements may be in the soil, only those parts 
that are available or capable of becoming so are of in- 
terest to the farmer. 

1 8. Soil Particles 

Soils are made up of particles or grains of varying size. 
The largest may be the size of gravel or small stone, while 
The particles the smallest may be invisible even under the 
or pieces \yQ^i microscope. The names often used, 

according as the grains are very coarse or fine, are as follows : 

Stone and gravel Fine sand 

Fine gravel Very fine sand 

Coarse sand Silt 

Medium sand Clay 

The clay and silt particles are exceedingly small, mere 
shreds of minerals. When rubbed together they become 
" sticky " • sticky. When dried, they shrink, and on 
soils wetting swell enormously. Their presence in 

large quantity makes what is called a ''heavy soil," one 
difficult to plow, becoming sticky when wet, cloddy and 
hard when dry ; air and water move through it very slowly. 
The water-holding capacity of clay or silt soil is high. 

The sand and gravel particles operate as separate 
grains. They are little influenced by drying or wetting. 
" Open " They do not stick together. Their water- 

^°^^^ holding capacity is low ; air and water 

move through such soils very rapidly. They soon dry 
out. Sandy soils plow easily, are not likely to puddle 



THE SOIL 37 

or clod, are generally in a mellow, loose, friable condition, 
and are usually well drained. 

Sands generally carry only small amounts of the 
necessary food elements, while clay and silt particles 
are usually rather rich in calcium (lime), u^^ ^„ ^^^ 
phosphorus, and potassium. Clay and silt, " strong " 
therefore, are classed as "strong soils," ^°^^ 
while the sands are likely to be deficient in plant-food 
and are called "weak soils." 

Midway between clays and sands are the loams, having 
both clayey and sandy properties. They are mixtures 
of various sizes of particles. Loamy soil is 
desirable because it has all the good qualities 
of the sands and clays without many of the bad qualities. 
Such a soil may be a clay loam, silt loam, or sandy loam, 
according as one or the other kind of particles predomi- 
nates. 

19. The Organic Matter of the Soil 

The organic matter comes largely from the roots and 
tops of plants. When they die they become part of 
the soil, soon decaying and losing their ^. . 
original form. Three classes of organic organic matter 
matter exist in soils : comes from 

(i) Original plant tissue. 

(2) Partially decayed tissue. 

(3) Simple compounds suitable for plant-food. 

The partially decayed products are called humus. 
They improve the physical condition of the soil and are 
beneficial to plant growth. Without humus, 
soils will not produce crops. Humus makes 
the soil mellow and easy to work, and gives it a dark color. 



38 TOPIC 3 

Organic matter may be increased by applying farm 
manures, plowing under green crops, or by adding wastes 
(as litter). 

20. Soil Structure 

The structure of the soil has to do with the arrange- 
ment of the particles. The structure may be loose or 
compact, hard or friable, granular (combined 
grains) or non-granular. What is known as 
granulation, in heavy soils, is most important. It is 
the drawing together of the fine particles or grains so that 
a crumb is formed. 

A compact or hard soil becomes loose because of these 
larger units, or crumbs, air circulates more freely, and 

, . water moves more easily. This granular (or 
Granulation . t, \ i- • i i • 

gram-like) condition must be encouraged m 

all soils, especially in the heavy ones. Tillage opens the 

soil and pulverizes it, tending to make it granular by 

breaking it up. Organic matter acts as a loosening agent 

in heavy soils and as a binding agent in sands. Lime tends 

to promote granulation, rendering the soil more open and 

crumbly. 

21. Soil Water 

The pore space of the soil, as already stated, is occupied 
by air and water. Two kinds of water exist in the soil, — 
film and free. 

The film water lies around the soil particles and in the 
spaces between the grains. That in contact with the 
Water in particles does not move, but the outer part 

fii^s Qf ^]^g f^\^ is f^ee to move from place to place ; 

this change of place of the moisture in the pores is called 
capillary movement. 



THE SOIL 39 

The free water is that which runs through the large 
pore spaces, going downward by the force of gravity. 
In many soils it does not naturally move fast Free water, 
enough or far enough, and drainage must be Percolation 
employed to carry it down. This downward movement 
of the free water is known as percolation. The finer the 
soil, the slower is the percolation, and the more likely is 
the need of drainage. 

A pound of soil contains looo bilUon to 10,000 bilhon 
particles. Every particle is surrounded by a film of 
water, while the spaces between act as reservoirs. The 
rootlets do not touch every one of these reservoirs. 

The soil water, with substances dissolved in it, must 
be drawn to the roots by capillary action, much aswater 
soaks up in a sponge. Such an action, al- ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^er 
though it does not take place over any great 
distance, is of immense importance to plant life. It 
enables the plant to draw on stores of food and water 
which it would never be able to reach directly. 

22. Control of Soil Moisture 
Most of the farmers' efforts in the growing season 
are to provide the proper moisture conditions. Tillage, 
drainage, mulching, weed-killing, and the like are simply 
means for controlling the soil. 

Water may be lost from the soil in four ways : 

(i) by run-off from the surface ; How H2O is 

(2) by percolation or leaching through ^^^t 
the soil into the subsoil ; 

(3) by evaporation from the surface ; 

(4) by being taken up by the plants and lost by trans- 
piration from their leaves. 



40 TOPIC 3 

Of these losses, only the loss through the crop should 
generally be encouraged. The more water used by the 
plant, under normal conditions, the greater is the growth 
and the harvest. Water conservation (or saving) con- 
sists in checking the other three losses. 

The escape of water by run-off is objectionable because 
of the washing and gullying of the land as well as the 
actual loss. While such loss cannot be prevented and 
is often encouraged by means of open ditches, it is gen- 
erally not considered to be good soil management. When 
such removal is necessary, tile-drainage is preferable. The 
gullying is specially serious in the South, where the soil 
is not held by winter frost. 

By maintaining a loose, open, friable condition of the 
soil, the surface water enters readily and little run-off 
Tillage and the takes place. The soil then retains moisture, 
H2O supply ^^(^ [f there is still an excess it can be taken 
away by underdrainage. As the water enters the soil 
it quickly becomes capillary moisture and is held. Deep 
tillage provides a good water reservoir. 

Loss by evaporation occurs in the growing season and 
consequently directly lessens the moisture available to 
crops, even to a greater extent than percolation or run-off. 
Evaporation losses may be controlled by the soil-mulch ; 
this subject we shall consider by itself. 

23. The Soil-Mulch 

Any material placed on the soil with the object of pre- 
venting weed growth and loss by evaporation is called 
The loose ^ mulch. While straw, leaves, manure, and 
surface layer other materials are sometimes used, the 
most common miilch is made of the soil itself. The sur- 



THE SOIL 41 

face is stirred to the depth of two or three inches with a 
harrow or cultivator, causing the soil to dry out very 
rapidly. The moisture beneath does not move readily 
into this loose, dry, granular layer. As long as the mulch 
is dry, Httle moisture is lost into the air from below. 

The soil-mulch is simply a loose, dry, tilled surface. It 
must be renewed by frequent tillage. In clayey soils 
the loose surface soon hardens, while sandy surfaces 
will remain dry and effective for a long time. The mulch 
must of course be renewed as quickly as possible after 
every rain. 

In general, soil-mulches should be shallow, as the dry 
layer is of little importance in supplying plant-food, 
although it is probably the richest part of character of 
the soil. Usually a mulch should be two to soii-muich 
three inches in depth. In the later part of the season 
the mulch should be especially shallow to prevent root 
injury by tillage. When the land is plowed, the soil- 
mulch (or surface soil) is turned under and yields its 
fertility to crops, although heavy rains carry some of 
its plant-food down even when it is on top. 

24. Dry-Farming and Irrigation 
Two great systems of farming are determined by the 
water supply, — one to save the water of rainfall in 
regions in which it is insufficient to produce crops every 
year, and the other to apply to the land water from out- 
side sources or regions. The former is dry-farming (page 
4) ; the latter is irrigation. 

In regions of twenty inches of rainfall, more or less, 
known as semiarid, good crops usually cannot be se- 
cured. If the rainfall of two years can be saved, how- 



42 TOPIC 3 

ever, one good crop may be grown in that time. The 
method consists in providing a water reservoir by plow- 
ing and fitting the ground deep ; in con- 

Dry-farming .^ r m. r ^^ 

tmuous surface tillage to form a soil-mulch ; 
and sometimes the subsurface packing to prevent leaching. 
At the same time crops are chosen that are adapted to 
dry climates. 

The methods of dry-farming are special, and cannot 
be discussed here. Much of the country in western 
Nebraska and Kansas and beyond requires dry-farming 
practices. 

Irrigation is a practice of arid and semiarid regions. 
Water is applied to the land from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, 
on higher ground, and from wells. Usually 
water arti- the water is conveyed by ditches and let on 
ficiaiiy ^-^^ Ys^iK^ in furrows between the rows ; some- 

times the entire surface is flooded. Irrigation involves 
engineering as well as farming. It is a highly developed 
practice in many parts of the Great West. 

Irrigation is sometimes practiced in humid countries 
to provide against droughts ; and special kinds of irriga- 
tion are employed in the cultivation of rice and cran- 
berries, as well as in market-gardening operations. 

25. Soil Air 

It has been stated that the average soil contains 60 
per cent and less of pore-space (page 34). This space is 
Air in the filled partly with water and partly with air. 
soil When the soil is dry, the air predominates ; 

when it is wet, the water is dominant. A soil saturated 
with water contains Httle air. When a soil is in good 
tilth, the pore-space is about equally divided between air 



THE SOIL 43 

and water. One of the objects of tillage is to control 
the soil air. A soil well supplied with air is said to be 
" ventilated." 

The soil air differs from ordinary atmospheric air in 
containing more carbon dioxide and less oxygen. The 
nitrogen is about the same. Since roots as well as soil 
organisms need oxygen, the necessity of good ventilation 
is apparent. 

Tillage, drainage, liming, and supply of organic matter 
are agents in maintaining the supply of air in the soil. 
Even changes in air pressure (as recorded by the ba- 
rometer), in temperature, and in wind velocity influence 
the circulation of air in the soil and its interchange with 
the atmosphere above. 

26. Soil Heat 

The soil must be warm in order to support plant Hfe. 
Chemical and biological changes require warmth. As 
a great factory, the soil becomes still and 
dormant without heat. This heat comes perature of 
from the sun ; when absorbed it furnishes *^^ ^^^^ 
the energy for the wonderful changes that are continually 
taking place. 

A number of factors influence the temperature of the 
soil. Most important of these is moisture. A wet soil 
is cold. Drainage tends to hasten the warming of the 
soil by reducing the excess water. 

Color is also a factor. A dark soil absorbs heat very 
rapidly and becomes warm. Light-colored soils reflect 
much heat and remain cool. 

The slope of the land in relation to the sun's rays may 
also be considered. In the northern hemisphere, south 



44 



TOPIC 3 



slopes are warmer than north slopes. This is to be taken 
into account in locating lands for the growing of certain 
vegetables and fruits. 

27. The Soil-Solution 

In discussing the water in the soil, we have considered 
it without regard to the materials it carries in solution. 
Such dissolved materials are used by plants, 
in solution ^.nd therefore the soil water is often spoken 
in the soil Qf ^g the soil-solution. Roots do not take 
their food in solid form, but always dis- 
solved in water. 

The soil-solution never becomes very concentrated or 
"strong." In fact, it is so very dilute or "weak" that 
•its strength is usually expressed in parts to the milHon. 
The phosphoric acid in the solution is about 7 parts 
to the milhon parts of water, and of potash about 21 
parts. 

Nitrogen is variable, due to the action of bacteria. 
As bacteria are most active in summer, soils often con- 
Nitrogen and tain nitrates as high as 1 50 parts to the 
bacteria million. In the winter, of course, the nitro- 

gen content is very low. This explains why it is often 
advisable to top-dress oats or meadows with a soluble 
form of nitrogen early in the spring. 

28. Amount of Food Removed by Crops 

When crops are harvested, considerable food is re- 
moved. The following table gives some idea of the num- 
ber of pounds of nitrogen, potash, lime, and phosphoric 
acid removed from an acre : 



THE SOIL 



45 





Yield 


Nitrogen 


Potash 


Lime 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Wheat 

Corn 

Oats 

Red Clover . . . 
Potatoes .... 


30 bu. 

30 bu. 

45 bu. 
2 tons 
6 tons 


48 

43 

55 

102 

47 


29 

46 

83 
76 


9 

II 

90 


21 
18 
19 

25 
21 



It is to be noted that the removal of plant-food is not 
only large, but that the drain on the different elements 
varies with the different crops. Clover xhe fertilizer 
needs much lime, while potatoes, as well as ^^®^^ 
clover, demand abundance of potash. Such facts also 
give us a general hint as to the fertilizer needs of the 
crop, and the necessity of studying the plant as well as 
the soil. 

29. The Nitrogen Supply 

When we speak of soil exhaustion we think mostly of 
the mineral elements (as potash, phosphorus, lime). 
The nitrogen is derived from the 

, T. • . 1 Nitrification 

atmosphere. it is not used 
directly as simple nitrogen, however, but in 
combination or compounds; it is utilized 
mostly in the form of nitrates, which are 
combinations of N, O, and a mineral element. 
The change of nitrogen into a nitrate form is 
known as " nitrification " ; the process is the 
work of bacteria. 

Certain organisms, capable of taking free 
nitrogen from the air, live in the Legumes and 
roots of leguminous plants, such nitrogen 
as clover, cowpeas, alfalfa, peas, and beans. 




Very Large 
Nodules 
ON • Roots 



46 TOPIC 3 

Because they produce galls or nodules on the roots of such 
crops, they are called ''nodule" or legume bacteria. As 
much as 40 to 60 pounds of nitrogen may be ''fixed" and 
thereby added to an acre each year by these organisms ; 
they are consequently of great importance in farming. 

The nitrogen is in part stored in the legume plant, 
which gives up the nitrogen when it decays and becomes 
humus. This accounts for the prominent place of leg- 
umes in almost every good rotation as well as for the 
use of such plants in green manures, catch-crops, cover- 
crops, and the like. 

Some soils do not contain the particular kind of or- 
ganism required for the making of legume nodules. It 
then becomes necessary to inoculate either the 
soil or the seed. Spreading a few bushels of 
soil from an inoculated field over the land is one practice. 
Sprinkling the seed with water containing bacteria ob- 
tained from natural or artificial cultures has also been 
employed very successfully. 

30. Soil Acidity 

Many soils are acid or sour. This is of great practical 
importance because most of the common crops need an 
alkaline soil condition (the opposite of acid). 

Most bacterial or germ action is greatly aided by 
plenty of lime, which is alkaline. Nitrogen fixation, as 
well as nitrification, is also greatly aided by 
lime. This accounts for the extensive use 
of lime in the growing of such crops as clover and alfalfa. 
Ordinary farming operations tend to lower the supply of 
lime. Any soil low in lime is likely to become acid, 
while all lands are slowly tending in that direction. 



THE SOIL 



47 



A good test for acidity can be made with blue litmus 
paper, which turns red when the soil is acid, blue again 
when it is alkaline, and shows no change if The litmus 
the soil is neutral. To test, the soil is *®^* 
generally worked to a thick paste with a neutral solution 
(neither acid nor alkaline) of potassium nitrate. The 
litmus paper is then placed directly on the paste, and its 
rate of change is noted. The soil may be slightly acid, 
acid, or very acid; if the last, the paper turns red at 
once ; if the first, it may require considerable time. 

31. Land Lime 

The remedy for acidity is the addition of an alkali. 
Lime is commonly used to ''sweeten" the soil. It is 
very effective, easy to get, and cheap. 

While lime corrects acidity, it also has many other 
effects. It tends to improve the physical condition of 
soils by promoting granulation. It thus The use of 
lightens clay soils. It also liberates other ^^"^® 
mineral plant-foods, such as potash. It tends to stimu- 
late bacterial action. Lime is a compound of the mineral 
calcium. 

Lime generally comes on the market in three forms : 

(i) Calcium oxide or burned lime (CaO). Kinds of 

(2) Hydrate or water-slaked lime Ca(0H)2. ^"^^ 

(3) Carbonate of lime or ground limestone (CaCOs). 
These materials differ in the amount of calcium, which 

is the active element in them. It requires about two 
pounds of ground limestone, or i^ pounds of the hydrate, 
to equal in effectiveness one pound of the burned lime. 

Lime is generally bought on the basis of its calcium or 
calcium oxide content, the farmer taking the form that 



48 TOPIC 3 

gives him the most for his money. He must consider 
not only the composition, but price on board cars, freight 
and cost of handKng, hauHng, and apphcation. In 
general, these three forms applied in equivalent amounts 
are equally effective. 

The quantity of Hme to the acre varies with the degree 
of acidity, texture of soil, the organic matter in it, the 
Quantity of crop to be grown, the fertilizer to be used, 
lime to apply ^ sandy soil rather strongly acid usually 
receives 1500 to 2000 pounds of limestone to the acre. 
A clay soil of about the same acidity would receive more, 
possibly 3000 to 5000 pounds. 

Lime in any form is best applied on the surface and 
worked in. It is a good plan to put it on just after 
plowing and work it in as the seed-bed is 
prepared. Generally lime should be ap- 
plied at a definite place in the rotation and should 
very closely precede the hay crop. In starting alfalfa, 
the land should be limed unless the .soil is distinctly 
alkaline. 

32. Fertilizers and Their Application 

Fertilizers supply the materials that are either lacking 
or unavailable. These materials are chiefly three : 
potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen. 

There must be the right available proportion of each 

of the three constituents to permit of normal growth. 

_, , Moreover, if one element is in too small 

The use of ' 

fertilizing quantity, the others do not produce their 
materials ^^^^ results, and their influence is partially 

wasted. In other words, the growth of a plant is governed 
by the element that is present in least quantity. 



THE SOIL 



49 



The materials that carry or supply the various ele- 
ments, and which are mixed together to make a 
''complete commercial fertilizer," are called The 
carriers. They are the carriers of nitrogen "carrier" 
and the rest. A number of the common ones are listed 
in the order of their availabihty under each head : 

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium 

Sodium nitrate Acid phosphate Sulfate of potash 

Ammonium sulfate Basic slag Muriate of potash 

, Dried blood Bone meal Kainit 

Calcium cyanamid Phosphate rock 
Tankage 

To meet the demand, manufacturers have put fertilizer 
mixtures on the market. Such mixtures are called 
brands, and are given names. By law these 
fertilizer mixtures, besides carrying a name, ' ^®''*'^'^®^^ " 
must also show the name and address of the manufacturer, 
the number of net pounds of fertihzer, and the guaranteed 
analysis of the mixture. The last item is very important 
and should be so stated as to give a good idea of the 
availabihty of the elements. 

Often the farmer finds it cheaper to buy the separate 
carriers or materials and mix them himself. This is 
known as home-mixing. To do this, the Mixing at 
farmer must be famihar with each carrier, he ^°^^ 
must understand which ones may or may not be mixed, 
and he must also be able to calculate the amounts to use 
for a certain formula. 

The mixing itself is a simple operation. Besides the 
possible saving of money, home-mixing tends to increase 
the farmer's knowledge of his own conditions. He is 



50 



TOPIC 3 



forced to study crop, soil, and fertilizer. Often it en- 
courages him to try simple experiments to increase his 
knowledge of fertiUzer needs and to test the wisdom of 
his practice. 

Each soil needs its own fertilizer for each different 
crop. Exactly what mixture to use can be determined 
Kinds of ^^^Y by experimenting. Nevertheless cer- 

fertiiizers i^dn formulae have proved to be of practical 
value. The table gives some idea of the formulae which 
may be used for different crops, the numbers meaning 
percentages : 



Nitrogen 



Phosphoric 
Acid 



Potash 



Cereals . 

Vegetables 

Grass 

Roots 

Legumes 



5 

lO 

5 
8 

lO 



How applied 



Fertilizers are generally broadcasted by machinery 
and when possible worked into the surface soil. The 

amounts applied are extremely variable. 

For ordinary farm crops, the amounts range 
from 150 to 350 pounds to the acre. For vegetables, 
the amounts often go as high as 1000 pounds. Potatoes 
are generally fertihzed heavily, 1000 to 2000 pounds to 
the acre being a not uncommon application. It is always 
best to keep the amount of fertilizer low enough to prevent 
waste and yet high enough to give a good return on the 
money invested. 

The successful use of fertilizers consists — 



THE SOIL 51 

(i) in abundant applications of minerals, balanced from 
time to time with nitrogen ; 

(2) in the fertilizing of the money crop. In other 
words, the motto is ''fertilize the rotation." It is usual 
to fertilize the tilled or hoed crop in the rotation, as corn 
or potatoes ; or the fertilizer may be applied with wheat, 
being drilled in. 

REVIEW 

What is " the soil " ? How is it formed? 

What do you understand by mineral matter and organic 
matter? 

Name the elements indispensable to the growing of plants. 
Which ones are mostly needed in fertilizers, and why ? 

What is a soil particle? Did you ever see one? How large 
are the particles in coarse sand ? in fine sand ? 

What is a heavy and a light soil ? 

How do sandy soils differ from clayey soils? 

What is a loam ? 

Whence comes the organic matter? What is humus and what 
does it do? 

What is the structure of the soil? Granulation? How does 
granulation improve soils ? 

Explain how water exists in the soil. What is capillary water 
and free water? 

Give your idea of percolation. 

Explain how the water enters the plant. 

How is moisture controlled ? How is it lost ? 

Explain what you mean by conservation of moisture. How 
important is it? What does the word "conservation" mean? 

How does deep tillage save moisture? 

Describe the soil-mulch and tell what it does. 

What is dry-farming? irrigation? Give reasons for their 
practice. 

How is air contained in the soil ? 

Explain the heat of the soil, and its action. 



52 



TOPIC 3 



State your conception of the soil-solution. Why is this solu- 
tion important to the farmer? 

What amounts of plant-foods are removed by crops ? 

Whence comes the nitrogen supply ? 

What do you understand by nodules ? How are soils sometimes 
inoculated ? 

What is meant by acid soils ? What is the test for acid in the 
soil ? How is acidity corrected ? 

Explain the liming of the land, and tell why. 

What is a fertilizer ? Why are fertilizers necessary ? 

Name some of the leading fertilizer materials. 

What are mixed fertilizers? Brands? What does the law 
require ? 

What are home-mixed fertilizers? 

What amounts of fertilizers are apphed to the acre? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND SPECIAL PROBLEMS 

Most soils may be placed in one of five groups according to the 
way in which they were formed. They may have been (i) laid 
down by glaciers, (2) formed or deposited by rivers, (3) drifted 
by winds, (4) formed as the result of the decay of the underlying 
bed-rock, (5) or the result of decaying vegetation that filled in old 
lakes or swamps. How do you think the soil on your farm origi- 
nated ? 

Obtain a generous sample of soil from your field. Spread it 
out on a piece of paper under the stove until it is completely dry. 
Fill a pint or a quart fruit-jar to within one inch of the top with 
the dry earth, compacting it by pressure of the fingers. Pour in a 
measured amount of water until the soil is completely saturated 
and the water stands on the surface. Estimate as nearly as you 
can the amount of pore-space there was in the soil sample. 

What kinds of commercial fertilizers, if any, are used by the 
farmers in your neighborhood ? Which of the primary plant-food 
elements, if any, appear to be deficient in your soil? What does 
your father think about it ? 

What kinds of soils are to be found in your neighborhood? 
Describe the soil improvement methods practiced by the best farm- 
ers of your community. 

Obtain a sample of the surface soil from your garden or field. 
Spread out in the sun or under the stove until all the moisturp 



THE SOIL 53 

has evaporated. Weigh out a definite amount of the dry soil and 
place in a metal pan or on a shovel and put on a bed of coals or over 
a fire. Heat until the soil mass glows throughout. When the 
burned soil is cool, weigh again. What was the percentage of loss 
in weight ? What part of the soil disappeared ? 

If heavy clay soil is obtainable, divide a sample into three parts 
of about one pint each and label them A, B, and C. Mix one-half 
spoonful of lime with A ; mix a small handful of dry well-rotted 
manure with B ; leave C untreated. Place each sample in a metal 
saucer or shallow can ; add water and stir until the material in each 
is in. a "soft mud" condition. Place the samples in an oven or in 
the sun until thoroughly dry. Then examine each sample care- 
fully and note any difference in structure. Try to crush each dried 
sample with your fingers. Report your results in writing. 

Obtain four tin cans of the same size and make twelve drainage 
holes in the bottom of each with a small nail. Label the cans 
A, B, C, and D. Fill A with air-dry clay soil ; B, with air-dry sand ; 
C, with dry pebbles ; D, with a mixture of equal parts of air-dry 
sand and dry well-rotted manure. So arrange each can that any 
drainage water may be caught and measured. Pour a measured 
and equal amount of water into each can. Keep adding water 
until drainage begins in can A. Which soil retained the most 
water? How may the water-holding capacity of sandy soil be in- 
creased? In which soil is percolation freest? 

Find three tall lamp chimneys. Tie a piece of cheesecloth 
over the bottom of each. Label the chimneys A, B, and C. Fill 
A with dry clay soil ; B with dry fine sand ; C with dry coarse sand 
or fine pebbles. Place A, B, and C in a shallow pan and fill the 
pan with water. Note the rapidity with which the water rises in 
each chimney, and the heights to which it ascends in a given time 
(one hour). In which soil is capillary movement greatest? 

Describe the methods and the tillage implements used by the 
best farmers in your section for controlling soil moisture. Why is 
it not a good practice to cultivate corn or potatoes deeply in mid- 
summer ? 

If you live, or have lived, in a dry-farming section, describe the 
special methods used by the farmers for catching and conserving 
the rainfall. What crops are especially adapted to a dry-farming 
region ? 

If you live, or have lived, in a section where irrigation is prac- 
ticed, tell how the land is prepared for irrigation and how the water 
is applied to the crops. 

Find out what nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid cost a pound 
when purchased in the form of commercial fertilizers. Apply these 



54 Toric 3 

figures to the average yield of crops grown on your farm. What is 
the acre-value of the plant-food removed from your farm by the 
crops ? 

What kind of leguminous plants are grown on your farm? 
What kind will grow in your neighborhood ? Carefully dig a clover, 
alfalfa, or bean plant and examine the roots for nodules. Do not 
pull up the plants, or the nodules may be torn off. Do legumes 
have a place in the crop-rotation plans on your farm ? Why ? 

Obtain a few sheets of red and blue Htmus paper from the drug 
store. (Enough may be obtained for one cent for this demonstra- 
tion.) Bring a sample of the field or garden soil to school from 
home. Moisten the soil sample with rain or snow water, and imbed 
a piece of red and a piece of blue litmus paper to one-half its length 
in the moist earth. Note carefully whether there is an acid or 
alkahne reaction. If no definite results are obtained, moisten the 
earth with dilute vinegar. Note the change in color of the htmus 
paper. Then moisten with limewater (made by slacking a piece of 
quicklime in water). Describe the change that occurs. 

Do you think the soils in your section need Hme? Do clover, 
alfalfa, and other legumes grow well ? What plants prefer an acid 
soil? What plants do best in an alkaline soil? 

If commercial fertilizers are used on your farm, get some of the 
fertilizer tags and bring to school. Study the guaranteed analysis 
of the different brands. How many pounds does each brand have 
of available nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid to the ton? 



TOPIC 4 




A Tool 



THE IMPLEMENTS 

Try to imagine a farmer with no tools — without an 
ax, hoe, knife, spade, saw, plow. What single crop could 
he raise, or what animal could he tame and keep? He 
would be powerless against weeds and roving beasts, 
and unable to till the 
soil. The civilized man 
is distinguished from the 
savage by his tools. 

A tool is an instrument used mostly by hand. It is 
the simplest mechanical aid that the farmer applies to 
his work. We all know what is meant by what is a 
"carpenters' tools." Usually the tool is *°°^^ 
smaller and lighter than a man, but some tools are used 
by two men. An implement is understood to be a larger 
instrument not used by hand. 

When several or many pieces or parts are so joined 
that they work together and perform certain labor, we 

have a machine. In 
a machine. 

Machine ? 

motion IS 

transmitted from one 
part to another. Follow 
the movement in a sew- 
ing-machine or feed-cutter from part to part. 

The working parts of a machine are known as its 
members. These we shall now discuss. Some of these 




An Implement 



55 



56 



TOPIC 4 



members, as the blades or shovel on a cultivator, are 
themselves tools attached in a framework so that they 
The members Can be held in place and drawn by a team, 
in the machine ^ cultivator is usually called an implement 
rather than a machine ; it is simpler than a machine 

since it has no motion or move- 
ment within itself. A grain- 
drill is a true machine ; a plow 
is a true implement. In common 
speech the word "implement" 
is often used as a general term 
for tools and machines together, 
as when we speak of an ''im- 
plement dealer." The word 
" machinery " is often used in a general way to include 
tools, implements and true machines. 




A Machine 



33. The Machine 

A machine, with one part transmitting motion to another 
part, is made up mostly of the following parts variously 
Main parts joined : framework, lever, link, strut, shaft, 
in a machine wheel and 
axle, crank, inclined 
plane, cog, cam, sprock- 
et, eccentric, pitman. 
The purpose of the 

frame is to hold the Lever. - Name the parts. 

parts together, in proper relation to each other. 

The lever is a member designed to transmit force or 
Levers of power by prying. A man uses a lever when 

divers kinds j^g j^f^g qj. pj-^gg up a rock with a crowbar. 
He puts one end of the lever under the rock, places a 




THE IMPLEMENTS 



57 




stone under the bar, and pries down. The lever con- 
sists of two parts working over a support or fulcrum, — 
the weight-arm and power-arm. When a man drives 
the point of the bar into the earth to hold it and pushes 
against the rock, the fulcrum is at the point of the bar. 

A very simple lever is the common singletree or whiffle- 
tree. In this case the two lever arms are equal, and the 
horse pulls one-half his load from each tug. whiffletree 
The fulcrum is in the center where the whiffle- ^^^ ^^^^^^ 
tree is attached. The evener is a lever. If we have 
one big horse and one small horse, we give the big 
horse the short end of 
the evener and the small 
horse the long end, so 
that each horse will be 
pulling in proportion to 
his weight. 

Other examples of levers are on the mowing machine. 
When we want to lift the cutter-bar over an obstruction, 
we pull back on the gag-lever. The hand ^^^^ ^^^^^^ 
must move through a long distance to lift the 
cutter-bar a few inches : the man has the long end of the 
lever. Another lever tilts the knives so that the grass will 
slip off the cutter-bar. The handles of a plow act as levers 
by means of which to tip the implement from side to side 
according to the ground it is passing over. 

A link is a member that transmits force by means of 
tension or pulhng. When we use a link we attach it to 
its hold by means of a hook or pin or another Links, and 
link. For example, the horse's tug is joined ^^^'^^ ^^^^ 
to the singletree by means of a hook, and the singletree 
is joined to the evener by means of a clevis. Both hook 



Levers and Links 



58 



TOPIC 4 



"^^ 




Struts 



and clevis act as links. These two links make the part 

free so that it may move one way or another. 

The clevis itself is of two parts, — the U-shaped part 

and the pin. It is by the pin that the clevis secures its 

hold; this kind of pin, 
that screws into place or 
is otherwise securely held, 
is called a clevis-pin. 

The inner shoe on the 
mower is lifted from the 
ground by a hnk hanging 
from the gag-lever on 
one end and attached to 
the yoke on the other. 
A strut is a member 

designed to transmit the force by means of compression 

or pushing. When a wagon goes down hill we hold it 

The strut, back with the tongue. The tongue pushing 

and what it is against the neck-yoke acts as a strut. A 

post in a barn which holds up 

the weight of the haymow is also 

a strut. The push-bar on a 

mowing machine is another 

example ; also the frog on a 

plow. The plow-beam presses 

against the frog and the frog 

presses against the plowshare. 

The spokes in a wagon wheel 

act as struts, but the spokes in a bicycle wheel act 

as links. 

A shaft is a member to transmit force by means of 

torsion or twisting. The large wheels of the mowing 




Line-Shaft 



THE IMPLEMENTS 59 

machine drive the main shaft, and this shaft in turn drives 
a big spur-gear, which is fastened to it by means of pins 
or keys ; when the shaft rolls, the gear must xhe shaft 
turn with it. The shaft imparts a twisting ^^^ ^^^ use 
motion. Another example is the line-shaft, driven by 
an engine. From this Hne-shaft is taken off power for 
different machines, such as a corn-sheller or a cream 
separator. 

An axle is the pivot on which a wheel revolves. The 
most familiar example is in the common wagon or cart. 
The wheel turns and the axle stands still. 

The axle 

When the wagon is pulled forward by the 
horses, the axle presses against the inside of the hub of 
the wheel and pushes the wheel along. 
Since the rim of the wheel rests on the 
ground and the hub moves forward, 
the wheel is revolved about its axle. 
A wheel acts like a lever and the 

Axle and Wheel 

axle acts like a lulcrum ; or, we may 

consider that the distance from the hub to the ground 

is one power-arm, and the distance from the hub to a 

chain or whatever is fastened on the wheel, as the 

weight-arm. 

Another example of the wheel-and-axle is the windlass, 
with which water is lifted in a bucket from an open well. 

Another example, more complicated, is that part of the 
mowing machine by which the main drive-wheel imparts 
motion to a pawl, and the pawl to the ratchet, and the 
ratchet to the main shaft, the main wheel of the mow- 
ing machine itself being free to turn on the end of the 
main shaft just as the wagon wheel is free to turn on 
its axle. 




6o 



TOPIC 4 




Practically all machines contain wheels of one kind or an- 
other. Sometimes they are used merely for locomotion, as 
on a wagon, automobile, railway coach, and other vehicles. 

A crank is a special kind of lever to transmit motion 
to a shaft. It is used in a bucket or chain pump, and 
The use of to crank or start an auto- 
the crank mobile. The motion may 
be suppHed by a boy (and often un- 
wilhngly), as at a grindstone. 

The inchned plane is a sloping surface 

or body, up which or down which some- 

. . thing travels. The plow- 

Descnption ° . Crank 

of inclined share IS an excellent ex- 

P^^^® ample of the inclined plane. As the plow 

moves forward, the furrow-sHce is Hfted until it comes on 

the moldboard. Then the mold- 
board acts as an inclined plane 
and throws the furrow-slice over 
to one side ; in fact, the moldboard 
acts as an inclined plane in two 
different directions, approaching 
the screw in form. 
Spur-Gears ^p^^^j^ ^^ wheels meshing with 

each other and transmitting motion are known as cogs. 

Cogs and The motion is by direct contact of cog with 

gears ^^g^ making a gear. 

When teeth on one wheel mate with corresponding 

teeth on another wheel and the shafts of the two wheels 
are parallel, we have a spur-gear. Such 
gears are found on the mowing machine, the 

cream separator, the corn-sheller, hay-press, and many 

other machines. 




THE IMPLEMENTS 



6i 



Gear- teeth cut on a bevel or angle so that one shaft is 
at right angles to the other shaft, are known 
as bevel-gears or miter-gears. We find these 
on the mowing machine, harvester, and in many other 




A Cog-Wheel, Known 
AS A Spur- Gear 



Cogs of a Spur- 
Gear 



Bevel-Gear 




Worm-and-Wheel 



places. Bevel-gears are used in the differential of the 

automobile. 

Another form for driving a shaft at right angles to the 

other is the ''worm-and- wheel." A portion of the 

spindle of the cream separator bowl 

is cut as a worm to be driven by a 

bronze worm-wheel. (The loss due 

to friction is less between bronze and 

steel than between steel and steel.) 
When one wheel 
imparts its power directly to another 
wheel without teeth or cogs of any kind, 
the two are called friction Friction 
wheels. This device per- wheels 
mits slipping, thereby lessening the jerk 
when the parts come together. This 
principle is employed in the clutch of 
the automobile, the parts slipping some- 
what before they ^'take hold." 
A cam is a member to impart to a follower a certain 

prescribed motion. It always has a curved edge or face 

against which the follower works. It is never perfectly 




Friction Wheels 



62 



TOPIC 4 




Cam and Follower 



circular. It is often of irregular shape. The desired 
motion is first determined; then a cam is devised that 
What a cam will produce it. Some cams are cylinders, 
^^ as the device used in certain sewing- 

machines to drive the needle. 

One example of a cam is the heart-shaped member 
used on the sewing-machine for the purpose of winding 
thread on the bobbin. In this case the follower travels 
at a uniform rate along the bobbin and then reverses 

its motion instantly at the 
ends so as to prevent the 
thread from piling up at the 
ends of the bobbin, as it 
would do if the follower were 
to pause. 

Another kind of cam is 
found in the binder, for dropping the trip-hook so that 
the bundle can be discharged. This is called the tier- 
head cam. Its prescribed motion is to hold the hook 
stationary while the bundle is being tied, then drop the 
hook when the discharge-arms come around and push 
out the bundle. This cam gives its motion to the trip- 
hook through a lever, a link, and a shaft. This tier- 
head cam is circular for the most part, but has a de- 
pression for dropping the bundle. 

Another cam is the tightening device for placing quickly 
•detachable shares on plows. When we turn the handle, 
the share is drawn firmly into place. Another form is 
sometimes seen on the tailboard of a wagon-box for 
fastening the gate in place. 

When a wheel is arranged to impart power to another 
wheel by means of a chain it is called a sprocket-wheel, 



THE IMPLEMENTS 63 

and the teeth on which the chain-Hnks work are sprockets. 
Since the parts of the chain transmit force by means of 
tension, they are hnks. The term cog is sprockets and 
never appHed to a sprocket, but is confined sprocket- 

^^ . - . wheels 

to those teeth that impart the motion 

from one wheel to another by direct con- 
tact (page 60). 

An eccentric is a circle mounted off- 
center, so that it does not revolve evenly. 

It is a speciahzed form of ^^ 

^ . . r The eccentric 

crank. The eccentric is often 

used in the fanning-mill for moving the 

Sprocket-Wheel ^.^^^^^ ^^ ^.^^^^^ ^^^ sometimes on the 

manure-spreader for driving the apron. It is employed 
on the steam traction engine to drive the valves. 

A pitman is a rod or bar for changing circular or round- 
and-round (rotary) motion into back-and-forth (recipro- 
cating) motion. Examples of the pitman ^^^^.^^^^ 
are shown on the mowing machine, binder, 

and printing press. It is attached at 
both ends and transmits motion from 
one part to another, but modifies the 
form of motion. 





Eccentric 



34. The Plow 

Aside from hand tools, the plow is 
probably the oldest farm implement. 
In its original form it was a trunk of a what is a 
small tree with a branch cut off near the P^o^'' 
crotch and somewhat pointed. History tells us that 
women pulled the implement. Later, oxen took up the 
burden. The plow itself made little development until 



64 



TOPIC 4 



well within the era of written history. It has now 
become a highly developed implement, although simple, 
made of the best materials, and in forms adapted to 
many kinds of work. The plow is one of the most 
useful implements known to man. 

A plow may be defined as an implement designed to 
cut free and turn over a slice of the tillable part of the 




LANP3/DE 



FROG 



The Plow 



earth's surface. The part or strip turned over is the 
furrow-slice ; the channel opened in the ground is the 
r^. . furrow. The plowman walks in the furrow. 

The furrow ^ 

and the The plow consists essentially of three parts, 

furrow-slice _ ^^ |^-^^j^^ ^j^^ bottom, the steering mech- 
anism. 

The hitch is represented in the beam. At the front 
end of this beam is a member for attaching an evener. 
The "hitch" ^nown as the clevis. This clevis has two 
of the plow ; adjustments, one in the vertical known as 
the ''vertical clevis" or "depth hitch"; the 
other the ''horizontal" or "cross clevis," commonly 
called the "width hitch." Notice the peculiar curved 
shape of the plow-beam to give it clearance over the 
furrow-slice. The beam must transmit the pull of the 
horse to the plow-bottom; it thickens in the curve for 



THE IMPLEMENTS 65 

stiffness ; and, if made of steel, we get a stronger member 
with an I-section than with any other form. 

The rear end of the beam attaches to the framework 
of the bottom, known as the frog. To the face of this frog 
two members are attached ; one is for cutting 

,. r 1 1 1 The bottom; 

the furrow-shce free, known as the share; frog, moid- 

the other member is for inverting the furrow- board land- 

" side, share 

slice, known as the moldboard. If the plow 

is drawn forward, the furrow-sHce, pressing against the 
face of the moldboard, tends to push the implement side- 
wise. To avoid this there is placed on the opposite side 



CLEVIS 




Parts of the Plow 

of the frog a member called the landside, whose purpose 
is to transmit this thrust from the furrow-sHce against 
the opposite side of the furrow, holding the plow steady 
and in place. 

As the horses pull upward more or less on the beam, 
the tendency is for the plow to be lifted out of the ground. 
To prevent this, the point of the share (the ''plow-point") 
is slanted downward; this tends to pull the plow into 
the earth, and the tendency is called "the suction." 
Most plows have a shght heel or projection on the lower 




66 TOPIC 4 

edge of the landside; this also serves to hold the plow 
in place. 

Let us run hastily over the parts that transmit the 
power : from the whiffletree to the evener and clevis, 
How the plow from the clevis to the beam, from the beam 
operates ^q ^-j^q irog, from the frog to the share and 

moldboard ; and the thrust of the share and moldboard 

is taken up by the land- 
side. 

To steady the plow, 
we attach the handles. 
These enable us to sup- 
plement the horses in 
^r ^. r: ^ stccring thc device across 

A Cultivator. — Note the five plows or ^ 

shovels (but which do not invert a fur- the field. 

''«^-^"''^- The diagrams show 

the parts of the plow. It looks like a simple implement, 
and so it is ; but it is the simplicity of centuries of ex- 
perience. Every farm boy knows that the plow will not 
work well unless the eveners, clevis, handles, point, and 
other parts are "hung just right." Even a slight fault 
will make a great difference in the ease and thoroughness 
of the plowing. The violin is a simple instrument ; yet 
it must be perfectly adjusted, and few persons can play it 
well. So the plow is simple in line and part ; yet every 
part is essential and much skill is essential to plow well. 

35. Care oe Machines and Implements^ 

Suppose you put the one-horse cultivator in good 
condition. In the first place, use a putty knife or a 

^W. K. Elodgett, Assistant Extension Professor of Rural Engineering; 
published in Cornell Rural School Leaflet, Vol. XI, Number 3, March, 1918. 



THE IMPLEMENTS 67 

scraper to clean off all the dirt. Then with a wrench 
tighten loose nuts and bolts. Right here make it your rule 
never to use a wrench on a nut unless it fits wrenches and 
closely. If you are a little careless about ^^*^ 
this point, the loose-fitting wrench will soon round off 
the corners of nuts or bolts. Then they will be very 
difficult to hold or turn with any wrench. You may find 
that some nuts stick and refuse to turn on the bolts. 
Put a few drops of kerosene on them and leave them; 
they will turn more readily the next day. In putting 
nuts or other metal parts together, apply a little oil or 
grease. Thus they will come apart more easily next 
time. 

Procure a stiff wire, such as a wire hairpin, and clean 
the dirt and the grass seed out of the oihng places of the 
mowing machine. No, do not use the end of use of the 
the oil-can snout for this purpose or you will oil-can 
soon find that the can will not feed any more oil. 

Do not remove the packing that you may find in one or 
two of the big oil-cups. This packing is to hold the oil so 
that it will run down slowly to the bearing as needed. 
Although cotton is sometimes used here, it is not desirable, 
for it fills the feed hole too tightly ; wool just 
as it is clipped from the sheep's back is the 
proper material to use. Put a few drops of oil into each 
hole. Every part that runs or rubs on another part when 
a machine is working should receive oil. To this rule there 
is one exception in the case of a mowing machine : it is 
not considered necessary to oil the knife where it runs 
back and forth on the finger guards. Be sure to put your 
wire and the can of oil in the mower box. The driver 
will need to use them in an hour or two. 



68 TOPIC 4 



REVIEW 



What do you understand by a tool? machine? implement? 
Give examples. 

What is a member ? 

What are the main parts or elements in a machine ? 

Explain what you mean by the frame. What is the frame in a 
sewing-machine or a feed-cutter? 

Describe a lever, with examples. 

What is meant by a link ? 

What is a strut? shaft? 

Describe the action of the wheel. 

What is a crank ? incHned plane ? 

What are cogs? cams? sprocket? eccentric? 

Define pitman. 

What can you say about the character and importance of the 
plow? 

What are the three fundamental parts of the plow ? 

Describe the beam of the plow ; the bottom. 

How is a plow steered and handled ? 

What are the cutting and turning parts of the plow? 

How should tools and machinery be housed ? 

Explain the reasons for oiling and painting. 

THOUGHT-PROBLEMS AND INQUIRIES 

Make a Hst of the tools, implements, and machines used on your 
farm or on the farm of a neighbor. 

What is the average life of the different farm implements and 
machines used in your section ? 

Find out to what extent farm machinery has reduced the amount 
of human labor necessary for producing a bushel of wheat. 

Make a hst of the different kinds of plows that are used by the 
farmers in your region. Describe the special use of each. 

How are farm implements and machines cared for during the 
winter, or season when not in use on your farm ? 

How many square feet of roof or wall space will be required to 
house a grain binder, hayrake, mower, plow, and harrow? If the 
life of the implements mentioned can be increased loo per cent by 
such protection from the weather, and the building will last twenty 
years, will it pay to erect such a structure ? 



THE IMPLEMENTS 69 

How many places are there to be oiled or greased on a grain 
binder? stationary gas engine? tractor? 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS 

Each of the older pupils should undertake the task of keeping 
the farm implements and machines in the best of working order. 
The project may be resolved into three phases. 

1. To see that the implements are properly housed or protected 
when their work for the season is completed. This includes the 
painting or greasing of exposed parts that may rust or rot. 

2. The careful examination of all implements previous to the 
season of their use so that broken or missing parts may be detected 
and ordered in plenty of time. 

3. The oiling or filling of the grease cups at morning and noon, 
or as frequently as needed, of the bearings in all machines in serv- 
ice. Make this your job so that the machine operator may have 
his time for other duties. 

Let some pupil bring a plow to the schoolroom. Place it on a 
table or bench, where it may be seen from all sides. The pupils 
should take it apart, naming every piece and explaining its use. 
The same pupils should put the parts together again. 



TOPIC 5 

THE WEATHER 

Plants grow in the atmosphere as well as in the soil, 
deriving from it part of their nourishment. Animals live 
in the atmosphere, obtaining food directly or indirectly 
from the plants. Men live in the atmosphere. Even 
animals that burrow in the earth must have air ; so 
must the fish even though they never come to the top. 
No Hfe could exist and no fire could burn were it not 
for the atmosphere. 

36. The Atmosphere 

The atmosphere is the air surrounding the earth. We 
live at the bottom of the ocean of air, much ascertain 
animals live at the bottom of the sea. As these animals 
cannot live at the top of the sea, so we cannot live at the 
top of the atmosphere. 

Men cannot live at a height greater than about six 
miles because of the thin air and the insufficient supply 
The ocean o^ oxygen. When we ascend high mountains 
of air ^jQ experience the sensation of "rare air," 

which is insufficient air. The heart may be affected, the 
nose may bleed, the person may be "out of breath." 
Some persons cannot make a high ascent. Many of them 
are affected in going on the railroad to the top of Pikes 

70 



THE WEATHER 71 

Peak, which is about 14,000 feet above the sea. The 
atmosphere is appreciable upwards for perhaps hfty 
miles, but there is evidence that it extends four times this 
distance. 

The air is composed of certain gases mixed together, 
much as one might mix sand, sawdust, and ashes. The 
principal gases are nitrogen, oxygen, and constituents 
carbon dioxide. About four-hfths of the of the air 
volume of air is nitrogen. 

The air also contains moisture in the form of invisible 
vapor of water. When sufficiently cooled the vapor 
condenses into visible particles of water, form- water in the 
ing clouds and rain, sleet, hail, dew, frost. ^ 
snow. The steam in a tea-kettle or a steam engine is 
vapor and is invisible ; if the kettle or the cylinder of the 
engine were of glass, we could not see the steam inside ; 
w^hen the vapor or steam escapes, it condenses into a cloud 
which we erroneously call steam. 

The air also contains numberless particles of dust. 
These particles assist in the changing of vapor to water. 
They are assistants of the sun in the warm- The dust in 
ing of the atmosphere. The>' are the chief ^^le air 
cause of twilight, the blue of the sky, and the brilliant 
colors at sunrise and sunset. The dust particles and 
the gas particles take part in the wonderful changes always 
proceeding in the air. 

The condition of the atmosphere, whether warm or 
cold, moist or dry, cloudy or clear, makes the weather 
of any hour or day. The work of the farmer The weather; 
depends largely on the weather : in fact, it is ^^'^^^^ it is 
often controlled by the weather. 

The science of the weather is known as meteorology. 



72 TOPIC 5 

37. The Climate 

The climate of any place is the sum or average of all 
the weather for a year or a series of years. We usually 
What is meant speak of weather in terms of time (as the 
by climate weather of yesterday or to-day) , but we 
talk of climate in terms of place or region (as the climate 
of Chicago or New Orleans or the sea-coast). 

We also speak of chmate in terms of crops. One 
climate may be cold, another dry, another sunny ; and 
we know that the kind of climate largely controls the 
kind of vegetation. We speak of a good climate for 
wheat, cotton, fruit, sheep ; of one that is too dry for 
hay or too wet for oats ; of seasons too short for corn. 

We do not know the climate of a place until we have 
lived there for some time, say five or ten years, and know 
Climate and about what kind of weather to expect. We 
the farmer le'arn the extremes of temperature and of 
moisture, the length of seasons, the likelihood of storms, 
the probabilities of rainfall in the different months, the 
winter weather, summer weather, and the like. A clear 
knowledge of the climate is a great aid to the farmer in 
determining his plan of cropping. 

The changes in weather are the results of natural 
causes. They are not accidental nor beyond the power 
„„ ^, of man to find out and to understand. Once 

Why the 

weather it was thought that the weather changes 

c anges ^^^^ ^^^ work of imps living in the atmos- 

phere, but we now know that they are variations in 
temperature, pressure, and moisture. 

Man may not be able to control the weather to any 
great extent, but he can better adapt himself to it if he 



THE WEATHER 73 

understands why the changes occur and if he can know 
of them a few days or even a few hours in advance. 

Therefore, we may study the weather intelKgently, as 
we study any other subject that follows the operation 
of natural law. The weather changes are wonderful, 
and they add much to the interest of life. 



38. Pressure of the Atmosphere 

The great body of air above the earth bears down on 
everything. Even though it seems to us so thin and light, 
it has weight, as does a pile of stones or a building. At 
the level of the sea the weight of the air is about fifteen 
pounds on every square inch. 

So accustomed are we to the weight or pressure of the 
atmosphere that we realize this pressure only when it is 
removed, much as a fish may be supposed 
not to know that he lives under water until of the at- 
he is taken out of it. We utilize the pres- ^^^p^^^® 
sure of the atmosphere in many ways, as when we pump 
water, fill a fountain pen, or use a siphon. We could 
not take a drink of water or even walk were it not for 
the pressure of the air. 

Even at the same elevation above the sea the pressure 
or weight of the atmosphere at different places may vary, 
principally because of difference in tempera- 
ture and moisture. The air does not heat 
uniformly. It varies in density. But, in general, the 
pressure is greatest at the bottom of the atmosphere (as 
sea level) and decreases as we rise. The pressure is 
measured by a barometer. 

Certain places or regions in the atmosphere may be 



74 • TOPIC 5 

specially heavy or specially light, differing in pressure. 
High and low When the atmosphere is light, we say the 
pressures pressure is "low" ; when heavy, it is "high." 

A marked low-pressure area, or a "low," is a storm 
center. A "high" is usually a clearing condition, often 
accompanied by a cold wave. 

These "lows" and "highs" do not remain stationary. 
They move across the country, usually at the rate of 
600 to 700 miles a day, accompanied by characteristic 
winds, precipitation (fall of rain or snow), and tempera- 
ture changes. This is the distance covered by a railway 
train moving at the average speed of twenty-five miles 
or more an hour. 

39. The Wind 

Wind is air in motion. Wind moves toward the 
warmer areas, from which areas the air rises, much as the 
What the leaves are drawn into a bonfire by the upward 
wind is movement of the flame and its draft of air. 

The wind moves over such a large territory that we may 
not be able to recognize its rush toward an area of low 
pressure ; but studies of the atmosphere over large areas, 
by means of weather maps, disclose such movement. 

The winds are named from the direction from which 

they blow. The south wind comes from the south and 

the west wind from the west. A breeze is a 

The kinds of ,. . . , . , 

winds : zephyr, hght wmd, one that moves perhaps six to 
breeze, gale, eight miles an hour. A zephyr is a very light 
breeze. A wind that moves the leaves on 
trees travels three to five miles an hour. A gale is forty 
or fifty miles an hour ; a hurricane eighty miles or more. 
The strongest winds cannot be measured. A wind above 



THE WEATHER 75 

one hundred miles may blow down all ordinary structures, 
and usually uproots trees, exerting a pressure of perhaps 
forty pounds to the square foot. It has been estimated that 
winds may move two hundred miles an hour or even more. 

The trade-winds of the tropics and the prevailing 
westerly winds of the temperate zones are a part of the 
general circulation of the atmosphere over Rivers in 
the earth. They are general currents or *^^ ^^^ 
rivers in the atmosphere, much hke the currents in the 
ocean. 

These rivers are largely the distributors of moisture, 
which they bring from the oceans. The sun's heat 
evaporates the water ; the vapor is carried far what the 
and wide ; when condensed again into water it ^^^^^^ ^° 
falls as rain perhaps thousands of miles away, supplying 
the plants and animals and making streams and lakes. 

40. Storms 

Storms are more or less violent disturbances of the 
atmosphere. They are sometimes called low-pressure 
areas. Some storms are local disturbances of what storms 
small extent and soon pass away; thunder- ^^® 
storms and tornadoes are of this kind. 

Other storms involve great areas and move across the 
country in more or less regular routes or tracks ; these 
are general storms and are called cyclones. 

„ . , - . . Cyclones 

Knowmg the atmospheric pressure where 

these great storms are centered, the direction of their 

movement, the nature and velocity of the winds, and the 

temperature, the information may be telegraphed ahead 

of them and we say that a storm of a certain character 

is predicted. 



76 



TOPIC 5 



A falling barometer is an indication of the approach 

of a storm. The character of the storm is indicated by 

wind velocity, temperature, rain or snow, 

Falling and a ' • i 

rising barom- and Other features. A rismg barometer 
®*^^ indicates clearing weather and the passing 

away of the storm. 




Chart of a Storm or Cyclone. — Note the winds moving toward Low, 
which is near Chicago. The High is advancing from the Montana region. 
The dotted lines show the high temperatures east of Low and the low tem- 
peratures on the west. 

In common speech, the word cyclone is often used for 
the violent tornadoes or ''twisters" that work such 



Tornadoes 



havoc in narrow belts and for short distances, 
but this is an erroneous usage. The real 
cyclones, except hurricanes and typhoons, which originate 
only in the tropics, are not often violent enough to cause 
damage. In the meteorological sense, a cyclone is the 
name applied to storms that cover a large area, perhaps 



THE WEATHER 77 

four or five states in the Union. It is a movement 
of air, but it may be accompanied by rain or snow, 
and it involves change of temperature. The word 
cyclone itself signifies '' whirling in a circle" or around 

a center. 

The cyclonic storms are characterized by winds that 
blow more or less spirally around low-pressure areas 
rather than moving straight into the areas. Areas or loca- 
The storm areas are so large (perhaps a tions of storms 
thousand miles across) that we do not recognize the flow 
of air spirally ; but when we collect the wind observations 
from all parts of the storm and chart them on a map, 
we discover their law of motion. In the northern hemi- 
sphere the storm-center is always to the right hand as 
one faces the wind. The lower air in these cyclones is 
forced upwards, cooled, and discharges its moisture in 
the form of rain or snow. 

The positions of the storm-tracks or cyclones on the 
continent of North America have been well determined. 
Prediction of storms is not a mysterious ^.^^^.^^^^^ 
or uncanny power possessed by a "weather 
prophet," but the result of accurate knowledge based on 
the study of the laws of the atmosphere. 

41. The Tracks or the Storms, and Forecasts 
The continental storms of North America mostly 
move from west to east. They originate chiefly in the 
North Pacific ocean. Some of them start j^^rth Ameri- 
in the region of the West Indies islands and can^storm 
the Gulf of Mexico, and are known as West 
India hurricanes. They move first westward, then turn 
northward and move up the Mississippi Valley or the 



78 TOPIC 5 

Atlantic Coast. They are the most severe cyclones that 
invade the United States. 

The "highs" do not follow the tracks of the storm- 
centers, although they may move in the same general 
Routes of the direction and more or less parallel to them, 
storms ii ig j^Qt always known when a storm-center 

is reported off the Pacific Coast or in the northern Rocky 
Mountain territory, which one of the several trans- 
continental routes it may take ; there may be cross tracks 
from one storm to another : therefore, it is sometimes 
difficult to forecast the weather for any great length of 
time ahead of the storm-center. When the storm has 
been moving two or three days, its character usually 
becomes well enough determined to enable a fairly 
definite prediction to be made ; yet it may change sud- 
denly or may lose its momentum and die away. 

The path of a storm is determined by the general cur- 
rent or river of air in which it exists, and by the form of 
The storm the country over which it passes, modified 
path ]3y i\^Q cloud and the precipitation that 

accompany it. Mountain chains, wide openings in the 
ranges, broad plains, modify or change the courses. 

Not all the storms arise from moving storm-centers of 
low pressure. Some of them are wholly local, and move 
Thunder- relatively very little. Summer thunder- 
storms storms may be of cyclonic or low-pressure 
origin, or they may arise from the strong upward move- 
ment of heated air on a hot day. Even if they are local 
and practically stationary, they may be foretold with 
some degree of accuracy from a knowledge of the tem- 
perature, humidity, and other conditions prevailing at 
a given time. 



THE WEATHER 79 

P'armers and sailors become weather-wise, and are 
able to forecast the weather of the day or of the succeeding 
day with a good measure of success. They weather 
depend on certain "signs"; but these signs "signs" 
are only the indications or marks of the natural condi- 
tions, and the forecaster is unconsciously employing 
the scientific method of good observation in making his 
predictions. 

Every farmer should be able to foretell the usual 
weather changes in his locality. He learns the weather of 
his neighborhood, and knows about what to expect when 
the indications are so and so. 

The telegraphic forecasts of the United States Weather 
Bureau, issued daily (separate from the weather maps), 
are good guides for the weather of the localities or regions 
to which they apply. 

42. Lightning and Thunder and Rain 

So many and so complex are the changes in the atmos- 
phere and so far are many of the causes removed from 
observation, that it is very difficult to explain some of 
the commonest occurrences. 

Perhaps the pupil has seen in school the electrical dis- 
charge that passes between the two points on the electric 
machine ; or he has observed the spark on Lightning : 
the wire when the trolley loses connection ; ^^^* ^* ^^ 
or he has seen the sparks when, in a dry atmosphere and 
with dry hands, he rubs the cat's fur. A flash of light- 
ning is an electric spark on a gigantic scale, as proved 
by Benjamin Franklin with his kite in 1752. The light 
is caused by the heating of the air along its track. The 
hghtning burns a hole through the air. The discharge 



8o 



TOPIC 5 



may take place between two clouds, between a cloud and 
the earth, or between parts of the same cloud. 

Protection of buildings from lightning consists in 
drawing off the electrical energy from the buildings. 
Lightning- and in providing a route over which a dis- 
^°^^ charge may pass to the earth and yet not 

work damage. The charge is taken up readily by 

moist earth but not 
by dry earth. Metal 
roofs are good protection 
if they are connected 
with permanently moist 
ground by rain-water 
conductors or other metal 
pipes. Strong metal rods 
along the peak of the 
roof, with points at not 
less than forty feet apart 
and standing six feet 
high, may be expected to 
conduct a discharge to 
the ground if strong 
metal connections run 
deep into the ground. 
The rods and fixtures 
should be insulated from the building, and sharp or 
right-angle turns should be avoided. Moist earth con- 
ducts the electricity away; therefore the rod is at- 
tached to a metal plate which is deeply buried. 
The equipment of a building for lightning protec- 
tion should be under the direction of a reliable 
expert. 




Franklin and His Kite 



THE WEATHER 8i 

Thunder is the result of Hghtning. It is caused by the 
violent expansion of the atmosphere which takes place be- 
cause of the sudden heating along the course what thunder 
of the lightning discharge. It is in all re- ^^ 
spects similar to a violent explosion. The thunder is the 
noise of the explosion. 

Rain is drops of water condensed from the vapor of the 
atmosphere, and which become so large and heavy that 
they fall to the earth. It is supposed that 
the condensation begins to form around dust 
and electric particles. Rain washes the dust from the 
atmosphere and thereby cleans the air ; and it brings 
down certain gases that may be of use to plants. 

Rain-drops never are larger than about ^ inch in 
diameter ; if larger, they fall so rapidly as to break into 
smaller drops. They can never fall faster xhe drops 
than twenty- six feet a second. On the other °^ ^^^^ 
extreme, they may be so small as to fall only five feet or 
less a second ; and when very small they float as fog and 
cloud. 

43. Clouds and Their Kinds 

When the invisible moisture of the atmosphere is 
changed into numberless drops or particles of water and 
these particles are so small that they float, then we have 
clouds. If the cloud rests on the earth, it is called fog. 
Standing on the plain, we see a cloud about a mountain ; 
the man on the mountain, standing in the cloud, says 
it is foggy. 

Clouds are of many kinds, depending on the sizes of 
the particles of water, the height above the earth, and 
the shaping by currents of air and by wind. We look 



82 TOPIC 5 

upward at the under side of clouds, and they look more 
or less flat to us. They would look very different if 
Clouds and we were on the same level with them. They 
what they are ^ould present Still another appearance if we 
were above them. 

We may classify clouds roughly into three groups or 
families. There are many combinations of these three 
species of clouds and many intermediates, for no two 
clouds are alike. 

The low-lying dull gray forms, more or less stratified 
or in layers, are stratus clouds. Sometimes they are 
stratus . no higher than the tree tops and steeples, 
clouds They lie against the sides of mountains and 

hide their tops. From these clouds the rain comes, and 
then they are called nimbus clouds. 

The thunder-heads or wool-packs of summer, rising 

like domes and castles and floating on a flat base, are 

the cumulus clouds. They are wonderful 
Cumulus 1 . . . .1 1 

objects m the sky. 

High above the others are the cirrus clouds, thin 
feathery deHcate white bands and bunches, sometimes 
like horse tails and again like films of frost. 
They are indeed frost. Usually they are 
five or six miles above the earth, where the water freezes 
into crystals of ice. Sometimes these clouds may be 
seen through rifts in the stratus, lying far in the heavens. 
A storm is to be expected a day or two following cirrus 
clouds. 

It is well to study the animals and birds and the soil ; 
it is equally well to study the clouds, to name their 
forms, to describe the colors, and to watch the shadows 
that they cast on the earth and on each other. 



THE WEATHER 83 

44. The Weather Map 
For many years the United States Weather Bureau 
has charted the tracks of the general or continental 
storms, and the routes and movements are now repre- 
sented on weather maps. These charts are posted in 
public places and may be obtained for school and other 

use. 

On an outline map of the United States, lines and 
symbols represent the weather conditions as telegraphed 
at 8 A.M. and 8 p.m. each day to Washington. The weather 
The positions of equal atmospheric pressures "^^p 
are shown by heavy black lines-; some of the hues inclose 
''lows" and some "highs." Equal or similar tempera- 
tures are represented by dotted lines. Arrows indicate 
the direction of the wind. Symbols indicate the state of 
the weather, whether clear, cloudy or partly cloudy, rain 
or snow. 

The reading-matter or text on the map presents the 
forecasts, and such further information as one may need 
to enable one to understand the weather movements 
across the continent and to be advised of the probable 
condition in one's own region. 

45. Weather Bureau Forecasts 
Aside from the issuing of the weather maps, the United 
States Weather Bureau sends forecasts twice a day to all 
parts of the country by telegraph, telephone. Foretelling 
and mail, as indicated in the preceding ^^^ ^^^^^^^ 
section (44). These forecasts are printed slips or cards 
to be seen in post-offices and other pubhc places, with 
such information as this : " Generally cloudy to-night and 



84 TOPIC 5 

Thursday; colder to-night." These indications are 
usually printed also in the daily newspapers. 




ia ►► fe 



12 3 4 5 

Weather Flags 

Weather flags are also displayed, with signals as 
follows : 

No. I , square white flag, alone : fair weather, stationary tem- 
perature. 

Signals of No. 2, square blue flag, alone : rain or snow, 

many kinds stationary temperature. 

No. 3, square, white above, blue below, alone : local rain, sta- 
tionary temperature. 

No. 4, triangular black, refers to temperature. 

No. 5, square white, with black center : cold wave. 

No. I, with No. 4 above it : fair weather, warmer. 

No. I, with No. 4 below it : fair weather, colder. 

No. 2, with No. 4 above it : warmer weather, rain or snow. 

No. 2, with No. 4 below it : colder weather, rain or snow. 

No. 3, with No. 4 above it : warmer weather, with local rains. 

No. 3, with No. 4 below it : colder weather, with local rains. 

No. I, with No. 5 below it : fair weather, cold wave. 

No. 2, with No. 5 below it : wet weather, cold wave. 

Whistle signals are these : 

The warning signal, to attract attention, is a long blast of fifteen 
to twenty seconds' duration. After this warning has been sounded, 
long blasts (of four to six seconds' duration) refer to weather, and 
short blasts (of one to three seconds' duration), to temperature; 
those for weather are sounded first. 

One long : fair weather. 

Two long : rain or snow. 

Three long : local rain or snow. 

One short : lower temperature. 



T + fi 

3 4 



THE WEATHER 85 

Two short : higher temperature. 
Three short : cold wave. 

Interpretation of Combination Blasts: 

One long, alone : fair weather, stationary temperature. 

Two long, alone : rain or snow ; stationary temperature. 

One long and one short : fair weather, lower temperature. 

Two long and two short : rain or snow, higher temperature. 

One long and three short : fair weather, cold wave 

Three long and two short : , 

local rains, higher tempera- ^^ . W^ 

ture. ^^ ^ ^^ 

Canadian signals : 

No. I, gale at first from an Canadian Storm Warnings 

easterly direction. 

No. 2, gale at first from a westerly direction. 

No. 3, heavy gale at first from an easterly direction. 

No. 4, heavy gale at first from a westerly direction. 

46. Frosts 

In the daytime the earth and vegetation are warmed 
by the sun. At night the heat is radiated (or lost) into 
space, and the temperature may go so low ^^^^ ^^.^^^ 
that the plants are injured by frost. The 
radiation or loss of heat is most rapid in a clear still 
night. If the night is cloudy, the earth's heat will not 
pass off so quickly ; the clouds act as a roof. The loss of 
heat is less rapid if a shght breeze is moving or if the air 
is very moist. 

The two most usual ways of preventing light frosts are 
by smudging, whereby a cloud of smoke is produced, 
and by heating the air. Separate plants or Preventing 
small areas may be protected by covering, ^'"^^t 
and certain plants (as pineapples) may be grown under 



86 TOPIC 5 

slat sheds. Only valuable plants or crops will pay the 
cost of either protection of the crops or of prevention of 
frost. 

In productive orchards, particularly in the Far West and 
on the Pacific Coast, the actual heating of the air by spe- 
cially designed small portable heaters burning fuel-oil or 
coal has been successful, and many publications have 
been issued on the subject. 

47. Local Climate 

The success of farming depends as much on the climate 
of the locality as on the tillage or on the seed. It would 
The climate be useless to prepare the soil well and to 
of the place choose Seed with ever so much care were the 
climate such as to make success impossible or very diffi- 
cult. Persons often fail by trying to grow crops not 
adapted to the climate. 

The farmer should know about what to expect in his 
climate, — the probability of late spring and early 
autumn frosts, the rainfall and its distribution throughout 
the season, the cloudiness and sunshine, the occurrence 
of hot and drying winds, the likelihood of sufficient snow 
to protect his wheat and other winter planting. One 
should know whether the climate is likely to be 
"steady." See also the statement on page 72. 

All this is a larger question than daily weather; it is 
the average character of the locality from year to year. 
Weather WHien records of pressure, temperature, wind, 

records humidity, and other features have been made 

in any region for a series of years, one is able to measure 
the climate and to understand the relation of crop- 
production to it. 



THE WEATHER 



87 



These records are also of great value to others than 
farmers. If an engineer, for example, were to undertake 
an important work out of doors, he would want to consult 
records of rainfall and flood, and perhaps also of tem- 
perature and wind velocities. 

The work of making and keeping records of weather 
and climate hes with the pubhc weather services; yet 

every farmer should make 
observations at least of 
rainfall and temperature for 
his own benefit, much as 
one keeps a diary or a line- 
a-day. The weather serv- 
ices also desire a certain 
number of local observers. 

A rain-gage maybe placed 
near the house, where the 

observations Measuring 

may be made '^^ ^^^*^^^ 
easily. A thermometer 
shelter may be erected 
topped with a weather-vane. 
A habit of morning-and- 
night observations would 
soon be formed, and the keeping of the records would be- 
come a source of much satisfaction. A weather station 
might easily become an institution on a good farm. 

Every farmer's boy should have a weather-vane. A 
vane is easily made, usually in the form of an arrow or dart. 
Very ornamental ones may be purchased in Knowing the 
the market. Every morning the direction of ^"^^ 
the wind should be noted before the day's work is begun. 




Thermometer Shelter and Rain- 
Gage 



88 



TOPIC 5 



The careful observation of the weather should not 
be confined, however, to the records made by instru- 
ments. The conditions that 
precede both storms and con- 
tinued fair weather should be 
noted. It is good practice to 
write down the appearances 
of oncoming thunderstorms, 
of wind squalls, or whirlwinds 
and eddies, and the like. Like- 
wise of interest are conditions 
that follow the storms and 
that presage the coming of 

Weather- Vane "settled Weather." 




REVIEW 

Explain what you mean by the atmosphere. How extensive 
is it? 

What happens when one goes to a high elevation ? 

Detail the composition of the air. What is vapor? 

What about the dust in the air? 

Tell what you mean by weather; by meteorology; by cli- 
mate. 

What causes changes in the weather ? 

What do you understand by atmospheric pressure? Where is 
it greatest ? 

Contrast low pressure and high pressure. What do they 
signify ? 

What is the wind? Name some of the kinds. 

What is a storm ? 

Explain what you understand by a cyclone ; by a tornado. 

What is a storm-center? 

What does a rising barometer indicate? a falling barometer? 

What does " the track of the storm " signify to you ? 



THE WEATHER 89 

In what directions and paths do the highs and lows travel ? 

Discuss local storms. 

Why are farmers and sailors said to be weather-wise? 

What is lightning? thunder? 

How may buildings be protected from lightning? 

What is rain? fog? 

Explain the size of raindrops and how rapidly they fall. 

Wliat are clouds ? Name the kinds of clouds. 

Why do clouds look flat and thin to us ? 

W^hat is the system of weather maps and predictions in the 
United States, or in Canada if you are a resident in the Dominion ? 

Explain the weather map. 

Describe the weather flags ; the whistles or blasts. 

How do light frosts occur? 

What are the means of protecting plants and crops from frost ? 

What is meant by local climate? 

How are observations and records made? What may be their 
value ? 

SPECIAL PROBLEM 

What is the climate of your school district ? If there are records 
of your region, consult them to find out the average temperature 
of each month, average rainfall, and other facts that may be indi- 
cated. The highest and lowest temperatures for a series of years 
may be tabulated or charted. What are the prevailing winds? 
Wliat natural features influence the climate of your region, as hills, 
mountains, valleys, plains, forests to break the force of winds, 
lakes? 

Do you keep a diary of the weather ? Have you a good ther- 
mometer ? barometer ? Did you ever make a weather-vane ? 

Do you have weather maps in your school ? 



TOPIC 6 



THE PLANT 



Living things are classed into two groups, the plants 
and the animals. As we see them day by day these groups 
are distinct enough, and we could not possibly mistake 
one for the other ; yet in their lower forms all the outward 
distinctions disappear, and even the investigators may 
have difficulty in separating them. 

48. Differences between Animals and Plants 

It is in the way the organisms subsist, the plan on 
which they are nourished, that the real distinction lies. 

Green plants are able to use materials 
directly from the earth, when dissolved in 
How plants water, and from the atmos- 
^^^® phere. They organize these 

materials and make them into food for 
their sustenance ; with the aid of sunlight 
they use the carbon dioxide (carbonic acid 
gas) of the air in the making of starch; 
giving off oxygen in the process. They 
use the nitrogen of the air, which they get, 
however, through their roots. Plants use 
only gases and dissolved materials. 

Animals, on the contrary, cannot make 
How animals food from the original earthy 
^^^® materials, and they do not use the carbon 

dioxide of the air in the making of starch ; their food is 




The Leaf and 
Stem. — In this 
case the leaves 
are opposite. 



90 



. THE PLANT Qi 

mostly organized, that is, derived from plants or from 
other animals which, directly or indirectly, have subsisted 
on plants. They use soHd foods as well as the liquids and 
gases. They take in the oxygen of the air in breathing, 
and give off carbon dioxide (CO2). Plants breathe or 
respire similarly, but since they are inactive, and for 
other reasons, they use much less oxygen in the process 
and give off much less carbon dioxide. 

It is usually said that plants take in CO2 and give out 
O, thus purifying the air, and that animals take in O, 
and give out CO2, polluting the air ; and this statement 
is practically correct. 

The microscopic bacteria are plants; some of them 
are the cause of disease, as of tuberculosis. The pro- 
tozoans are animals ; some of these, also, are Bacteria and 
the cause of disease, as of malaria. protozoans 

Plants are usually green, above the lowest forms or 
kinds; the green coloring matter (chlorophyll) is con- 
cerned in the production of plant-food in the The green of 
leaves. Animals do not possess chlorophyll P^^^^^ 
(except perhaps in certain low forms) ; the green of frogs 
and certain others is due to pigment in skin or feathers. 
Many of the lower animals have no legs or wings, and 
the power of motion is limited ; many of the lower plants 
swim freely. 

49. The Miracle 

A friend gave me a particle as dry and brown as a 
grain of sand. He said it was a seed. He told me that 
if I would put it in the earth and then watch the place, 
I should behold a miracle. 

Presently a tiny thing appeared, green, with two 



92 



TOPIC 6 



leaves. My friend declared it came from the particle 
I had buried. It did not seem possible. It had no 
The wonder mark or semblance of the globular wrinkled 
of the seed gggj • g^^d how had the seed found itself 
among all those grains of sand ? 

Upward it grew, adding leaf on leaf, all unlike those 
that first I saw. Hairy stems struck out here and there. 
Buds came, unlike the leaves or the stems. Then came 
flowers in gorgeous color, unlike the leaves in color or 
form or substance. 

There it grew, this miracle from the seed. The earth 
in the pot was black-brown and formless. The water 
that I added was colorless and formless. The air in 
which it grew was invisible. Yet here were upstanding 
brown-green stems, fragile but strong; wide expanding 
leaves of green, with scalloped edges, thin and veiny, 
soft with velvet to the touch; crimson flowers on long 
stems, more fragrant than the dew, shapely, bearing 
delicate organs within; and presently there came pods, 
and in them I saw seeds like the one I had planted. 
What a succession was here of objects all unlike each 
other, all coming out of the same earthy the same water, 
the same air! 

A seed that my friend planted made stems and leaves 
and flowers and pods as different from mine as a cat is 
different from a dog. I wondered how these things 
could be. I have asked many wise persons, but none 
of them can tell me. 

50. The Root, and What It Does 

The root attaches the plant in the earth and grips it 
fast : we speak of the root-hold. The root branches into 



THE PLANT 



93 



many parts, having no such order of arrangement as do 
the stems. The fibrils enter the minutest The root, and 
places between the particles of soil, taking ^^^^ ^* ^o®^ 
from them their films of water and some of their materials. 

The materials enter the plant in solution in the soil 
water. The water enters the root by the 
process known as osmosis, of which the pupil 
learns in the study of physics. This process is the pass- 
ing of liquids of different densities through a membrane. 
There is also a mysterious force, called root-pressure^ 
driving the water through the tissues. 

The membrane, in the case of roots, is mostly in the 

root-hairs, which are very minute lengthened cells near 

the ends of the tiniest roots. The root-hair 

„ • ^ ^ 1 T. T 1 The root-hairs 

is really a minute tube. It soon dies, and 

new ones arise on the younger growing parts of the 

rootlets. 

The root-hairs may seem like a delicate white mold on 
roots of radish seedlings that are sprouted between folds 
of cloth or blotting paper. If a young plant is carefully 
pulled from the earth, many particles of soil are likely to 
adhere to the root, held mostly by the root-hairs. The 
hairs are laid against these soil particles, feeding. 

The soil provides what has been called the pasturage 
of the roots. If the particles are fine, the roots have more 
surface on which to act; the pasturage is The root 
increased. Good tilth has direct relation to pasturage 
the work of the root-hairs. 

The roots need air. One reason why undrained wet 
soils yield poor crops is because the roots are smothered. 
Roots also excrete or give off certain substances that 
aid in dissolving the mineral matter in the soil particles. 



94 TOPIC 6 

51. The Materials from the Air 

The greater part of the bulk of the plant is derived from 
the CO2 of the air, even though this gas comprises very 
much less than i per cent of the atmosphere. 

The gas enters the plant through openings or stomata, 
so small that they are not seen by the naked eye. They 
The gaseous ^^^ mostly on the under surface of leaves, 
materials These breathing-pores may be as many as 

100,000 to the square inch of leaf surface. 

Inside the leaves or green growing shoots, with the 
chlorophyll and under the influence of the energy of 
The making Sunlight, the CO2 is met by the upward 
of protoplasm moving current of H2O, and the food com- 
pounds are organized. Nitrogen brought in the soil 
water is added to the forming compounds : protoplasm, 
the living cell substance, is formed. 

The first material is starch or something very like it. 
The woody structure of plants, cellulose, is very like 
starch (CeHioOs) in composition. Starch can- 
not be made in darkness from CO2 and H2O, 
and plants do not produce green shoots in dark places 
(note the potato sprouts in the cellar) ; they very soon 
lose the green when buried, which is illustrated in the 
blanching of celery. 

52. Movement of Materials in the Plant 

The starch or other food is changed by digestion and 
carried to parts of the plant, where it is used in ■ the 
How the plant building of tissue, or is stored for future use. 
tissue IS made Some of it goes back to the very roots that 
took in the soil water, to be applied in growth. The 



THE PLANT 95 

mineral materials in solution in the soil water become 
incorporated in the compounds that the plant makes. 
Some of the compounds are very complex. 

The soil water moves upward mostly in the young 
wood or sap-wood; the manufactured food materials 
move downwards in the young bark next the wood. The 
fluids in the plant, whatever their content, are often 
spoken of as "the sap." The elaboration of food takes 
place in daylight, but growth mostly at night. 

When the plant is burned, the mineral materials remam 
behind as ash, containing such substances as lime, potash, 
phosphorus; and these ashes we may apply ^^^^^^ 
to the land as fertilizer. The ash comprises 
perhaps only i or 2 per cent of the total weight of the 
plant. The materials derived from the air and the free 
water go off as gas when the plant is burned, — the 0, C, 
H, N. If the plant were burned in a tight receptacle or 
pit, however, much charcoal would be left; this is C, 
which did not burn because there was insufficient O. 

The water taken in by the roots is itself a source of 
food to the plant, and it is also the carrier of other ma- 
terials. Much of it escapes into the air ^^^ .^ ^ ^^^ 
through the stomata, in a process of evapo- 
rarion, which, in this case, is called transpirarion. 

For every pound of dry matter composing the plant, 
probably 15 to 20 pounds of water must pass through it. 
An herb six feet high may give off a quart of water a day, 
and a large tree as much as 150 gallons. It is important 
that the soil hold sufficient moisture to supply this need. 
When plants wilt, more water is transpired than is taken 
in. If the roots are so chilled that they cannot absorb, 
the plant wilts and may die. 



96 TOPIC 6 

53. The Fungoids 

The process we have described makes the plants 
independent, able to secure and organize their own food 
Dependent from earthy and gaseous materials. Other 
plants plants, however, have no roots to forage 

in the earth and no green matter to enable them to use 
the CO2 of the air. They live on material that has been 
organized by other plants. They are dependent. • 

Sometimes they grow on a living plant or animal 
(which is then called the host), extracting their food 
The host from the cells. They are then called para- 

P^^^* . sites. Many of them have thread-like or 
web-like parts that enter the tissue of the host, in leaf, 
root, stem, fruit, injuring that tissue and disturbing the 
regular life process. They produce disease. 

The great class of fungi (singular, fungus) subsists on 
the living or dead tissue of animals or plants. Some 
of the fungi are large and fleshy, as the 
mushrooms, toadstools, and puffballs ; 
others are woody, as the shelf-fungi one finds on old logs 
and trees ; others are very minute, and among these 
are the important plant-disease fungi, as the mildews, 
rusts, and some of the blights. 

Great losses are occasioned by the plant diseases, as 
the wheat-rust, corn-smut, grape-mildew, potato-blight, 
apple-scab, bean-spot, sweet-potato-rot. 
Once it was thought that these blasts are 
due to some mysterious influence in the atmosphere. 
Now we know that they are the work of minute plants, 
each perfect of its kind and living its own round of life 
as completely as does a peach tree or a cotton plant. 



THE PLANT 



97 



The germs 



They propagate by spores, which are cells, mostly mi- 
croscopic. These plants have no leaves and no flowers. 

Among the dependent plants are the bacteria. They 
are numberless, in individuals. They live in the liquids 
or juices of animals and plants, and in water, 
and absorb food over the entire body. These 

^' germs" are the cause of 
many diseases of plants 
and animals. They are 
largely concerned in the 
breaking down and decay 
of animal and plant tis- 
sues, returning the mate- 
rials to the soil and the 
air, and making it possible 
for succeeding plants and 
animals and for men to live 
on the earth. 

The fungous diseases are 
mostly held in check, 

when leaves, _, ,. , 
' Remedies for 

shoots, and fruits are affected, by applying parasitic 
to the parts such materials as are injurious ^^^^^ 
to the fungi. These materials are fungicides. Bordeaux 
mixture is one of the best known. Usually the fungicides 
are placed in water and applied in the form of a spray. 
In bulletins and books are given formulae for the prin- 
cipal fungicides. See page 128. 

Bacterial diseases are not controlled by sprays, as the 
organisms are inside the tissue of the host. The affected 
parts are to be cut off and burned. 

The spread of all plant diseases is checked by burning 




Disease on Rose Leaf, Caused by 
A Fungus 



98 TOPIC 6 

all the diseased leaves, fruits, and stalks, and keeping 
the premises clean so that the organisms do not have 
hosts on which to breed. 

54. The Flower-Period and the Flower 

When growth is well advanced the flowers appear. 

Some plants endure only one year from seed to seed 
The annuals ^^^ death ; these are annuals. The length 
or one-year of life is comprised within a single grow- 
^ ^^ ^ ing season ; pigweeds, marigolds, corn, oats, 

buckwheat, rice, are examples. 

Biennials or Other plants live two years, biennials, 
two-year and the bloom usually appears the second 

^ ^^ ^ season, as in teasel and mullein. 

Other plants are perennials, 
living three or many years, as 
T^o«o.o« the shrubs and 

The peren- 
nials, or many- trees, and also 
year plants ^^^^ ^^ ^^ 

herbs, as docks, peony, and ^^^- 
alfalfa. In perennials, flowers 

may appear the first year from Structure of Flower. — The 

seed, but this is unusual. In Plum.—... sepals; p. petals; 

sta. stamens; 0. ovary; 5. style; 

shrubs and trees they may st. stigma. The pistil consists of 
not come until the plant is '^^'^t'l^;:r'-rll 

many years old. The gar- stamens are tipped with anthers, 
J r xi T_i T in which the pollen is borne. The 

dener forces the bloom earher, ^^^^^ ,^ ^^p^^^, .^,^ ,^^ f^uit. 
on many of his plants, by 

keeping them in small pots and providing all the con- 
ditions for rapid maturity. 

The complete flower has two sets of organs, — the 
leafy parts, and the so-called essential organs in the 




THE PLANT gg 

interior. The outer leafy parts comprise calyx and 
corolla, the parts of the calyx being sepals, and of the 
corolla, petals. The corolla is commonly xhe parts 
the colored showy part, and often very ^^ the flower 
irregular in shape. The picture distinguishes the parts. 
The essential organs comprise the stamens, and in the 
center of the flower the pistil (often more than one). 
The pistil will make the seed-pod or the 
fruit. It bears the ovules inside ; these essential ^or-°^ 
ripen into seeds. The stamens supply the gansinthe 
pollen, borne in the anthers, at the top. 

55. Pollination 

The ovules cannot mature into seeds without the 
action of the pollen. The grains of pollen are lodged on 
the roughened or sticky summit of the pistil, xhe transfer 
known as the stigma, and the action of fer- °^ pollen 
tilization takes place. 

The transfer of the pollen from anther to stigma is 
pollination. Usually there is provision for cross-fer- 
tilization, the pollen of one flower fertilizing ^ „. 

^ ^ ^ Pollination 

another flower. Stronger seeds usually re- and fecunda- 

sult from such crossing. Pollination is only *^°^ 
the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma. 
Fecundation (the making of the plant fecund or fertile) 
results from the action of the pollen after it falls on the 
stigma ; it is also called fertilization. 

In some plants the pistils and stamens are in different 
flowers. A notable case is Indian corn, the pistils being 
the "silks" in the ear, and the stamens in imperfect 
the tassel. In pumpkins, squashes, cucum- flowers 
bers, and melons, the pistillate or fertile flowers are far 



lOO TOPIC 6 

down among the foliage in the axils of the leaves ; one 
can see the little squash or melon below the corolla. 
The staminate or sterile flowers are usually more con- 
spicuous, often being raised on long stems ; they soon 
perish. In some plants, as willow, poplar, hop, the two 
kinds of flowers are on different plants; in these cases 
both plants must be close together or seeds will not form. 

The pollen is carried mostly by insects and the wind. 
A person may wish to cross two plants for the purpose of 
How pollen Combining more or less of the good qualities 
is carried ^f j^Q^h in the offspring. In this case it is 

not sufficient merely to transfer the pollen to the stigma, 
for other pollen may lodge there and the cross may not 
be what was expected. 

The flower that is chosen to bear the seed is opened 
in bud, just before it would open naturally, and the 
The crossing stamens are cut off with scissors or tweezers, 
of plants ^Y^Q flower is then covered with a thin paper 

or cloth bag. When the stigma is "ripe," as shown by 
its color and sticky character, pollen from the chosen 
flower is placed on it, and the bag is again tied on, to 
remain until the fruit or pod begins to form. The pollen 
may be carried on the point of a knife ; if the anther is 
not discharging its pollen, it may be opened at maturity 
and the pollen crushed out. 

56. Dispersal of Seeds 

If all the seeds were to drop directly from their pods 
and remain where they fall, there would be Kttle oppor- 
tunity for them to make plants. Most seeds or fruits 
are provided with means of dispersal. 

They are carried by wings, down, hairs, barbs, burs; 



THE PLANT lOi 

fleshy fruits are eaten by birds and the seeds scattered 
far and wide ; squirrels bury nuts ; sheep How seeds 
carry seeds in their fleeces ; the cow's tail is ^^® spread 
full of burdocks. 

The dead tops of certain weeds roll over the country in 
autumn and winter. Seeds are blown on the snow, and 
they float down the streams. Some of them retain their 
vitality for several years, and grow when conditions arc 
right. 

57. Germination 

A seed is a minute dormant plant. It will awake when 
it is given proper conditions of warmth, moisture, and air. 

A bean is a seed. Open the halves and note the little 
plant lying at one side. The halves are really leaves, 
packed with nourishment to support the How the bean 
plantlet until it begins to take supplies from comes up 
the earth and the air. The seed-leaves are raised above 
the earth in the process of germination. In the pea these 
leaves remain underground; the plant does not ''come 
up" in the same way as the bean. Every plant has its 
own method of germination. 

In the bean the entire seed inside the coats is the little 
plant or embryo. In wheat and Indian corn and many 
other seeds the embryo is buried in the food 
storage. In some seeds the embryo is what ^ ^^ ^^° 
we call the chit. 

If seeds are planted so deep that they cannot have air, 
or if the soil is too wet, they rot. Yet the seed must 
have moisture; this it absorbs; the seed .. 

Air and mois- 

sweils, and the processes are set gomg. In ture for germi- 
contact with finely divided moist earth, °^*^°^ 
which then holds sufficient air, the seed finds conditions 



I02 TOPIC 6 

congenial if the temperature is proper. The well prepared 
seed-bed is essential to a good start. 

Germination is complete when the food store is ex- 
hausted and the plant has root-hold and is able to main- 
tain itself. 

58. Saving the Seed 

Good farming rests largely in good seed. Every pains 
must be exercised to see that the seed is ripe when har- 
vested, that it does not become moldy and is not allowed 
to heat in piles. Keep it dry and cool, and protect it from 
mice and rats. 

Seed corn is often strung on wires and hung from 
rafters in the barn. Beans, peas, and similar seeds are 
How seeds usually kept in tight bags or boxes, and the 
are stored grain in dry mouse-proof bins. It is well 
to choose the seed in autumn or early winter, and to 
set it in a safe place in well-tied small strong bags that 
can be easily handled. 

If weevils attack the seeds, they may be killed by 
pouring a little bisulfide of carbon (CS2) into the box 
Protection ^^^ immediately closing the box tight. A 
from insects teaspoonful in an eight-quart box should be 
sufficient ; in large bins five pounds to each 1000 cubic 
feet. The Kquid does not injure the seeds. It soon 
evaporates, filling the box with gas. It is very inflam- 
mable and should be kept away from fire. The box 
should be kept closed for a day. 

59. Testing the Seed 

One should know whether the seeds will grow, and also 
whether they are strong enough to make vigorous pro- 



THE PLANT 103 

ductive plants. If there is any doubt as to the age or 
strength of the seeds, they should be tested in late winter 
so that other seeds may be ordered for the How seeds 
spring planting if necessary. The testing ^^^ tested 
consists in sprouting or partially germinating the seeds. 
Good farm seeds show at least 90 per cent of strong 
germination. 

With Indian corn it is also important to know which 
ears are best for seed. Kernels should be tested from 
all ears saved for seed, about six kernels being 

, The best ears 

taken 

from the same place 

on every ear. In 

'> ' ^'' :r''^^^^^mm^ general, however, 

^ '"^- -- seeds for testing 

are taken from 
the bulk in bin 

'Rag Doll" Seed-tester ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ 

should be exercised to choose a fair or representative 
sample. 

There are many forms of seed-testers. The seeds may be laid 
between folds of canton flannel or blotting paper, the layers being 
placed in a plate to which water is added, with another plate in- 
verted over it for cover. Keep the layers moist, not soaking wet. 
The plate tester allows the sprouted seeds to be taken out day by 
day. 

Perhaps a better device is the sawdust box. Two or three inches 
of clean sawdust that has been soaked with warm water is placed 
in a box. On the smoothed packed sawdust spread a stout cloth, 
wet, on which the seeds may be placed or scattered. Cover with 
another warm wet cloth, over which place a thick cloth sawdust pad, 
well pressed down. Keep the box at a living-room temperature. 
When the time has come for examination (six to nine days for corn. 




I04 TOPIC 6 

less for radishes and some other things, more for carrots, parsnips, 
and celery), the pad and upper cloth are removed and the seeds 
exposed. Determine the percentage of seed that has germinated, 
and what proportion is most vigorous and apparently strong 
enough to make good plants. If just one hundred seeds were placed 
on the cloth, the calculation will be easier. Sometimes the under 
cloth is ruled off into squares, by pencil, and the seeds from each 
ear or fruit placed together. Any ear showing a poor or weak 
kernel should be discarded for seed. 

The ''rag doll" tester is now popular. It is merely a canton 
flannel roll of seeds (page 103). A strip of the cloth about 6 in. 
wide and 30 in. long is laid on the table and the seeds are spread on 
it. It is then rolled up and tied loosely, and placed in a pail of 
lukewarm water for about 1 2 hours. The water is then poured off, 
and the rag doll is kept in the covered moist pail until the seeds 
sprout. 

Samples of seeds should also be examined for adultera- 
tion, such as weed seeds and dirt. This is accomplished 
Adulterated by the use of a small hand lens or a good 
seeds reading- glass. The examiner will be inter- 

ested to try to identify the kinds of seeds that he finds 
in an impure sample. 

60. Propagation of Plants 

Plants propagate mostly by means of seeds. Yet some 
plants (as Irish potato, sweet potato, sugar-cane, horse- 
radish, banana) seldom or never produce seeds ; and 
nearly all plants can be propagated by means of their 
shoots or the growing parts. 

The simplest form of propagation, aside from seeds, 
Propagating is by division, the underground stem or root 
by division being merely cut into parts. In this way rhu- 
barb, peony, and canna are increased. Akin to this is 



THE PLANT 105 

propagation by suckers or shoots that come up from 
the ground, as with blackberry, Hlac. 

In some plants, shoots bend over or lie on the ground 
and take root at the joints or the tip, making layers. 
The grape may be propagated in this way ; Layers and 
also black raspberry and many runners 
A Jj|U ornamental plants. Sometimes the layers are 
so prostrate and grow so long that they are 
called ^' runners " ; the strawberry has them. 
To propagate by layers, the shoot is bent over 
in the spring and the joints covered with 
earth. At the close of the season, good 
shoots should have formed and the layer may 
be severed on either side. 

Shoots or twigs may be severed from the 
plant and inserted in the earth to grow in- 
dependently ; these are then cuttings. 

Either when dormant or when growing, 
cuttings may be taken. The hardwood or 
dormant cutting is taken in cuttings, of 
winter or very early spring from ^^^^ ^^"^^ 
the wood or shoot of the last year's growth. 
Grapes, currants, willows, are propagated 
in this way. The cuttings may be set 
Dormant directly into the ground, or, preferably, they 
Cutting of may be • tied in small bundles and stood 

CjRAPT^ 

upright in moist sand in the cellar so that 
the bottom ends will callus. They may be kept over 
winter in this way. Usually the cutting comprises 
two or more buds. It is planted so that the top bud 
stands at about the surface of the ground. Cuttings 
should make a vigorous growth, and in two years the 



io6 



TOPIC 6 




Softwood Cutting of Geranixjm 



plants should be large enough to set in their permanent 
places. 

Softwood or greenwood cuttings may be taken from 
geraniums, fuchsias, roses, and many other plants. They 

are short (about two joints) 
and the leaf surface is re- 
duced to prevent transpira- 
tion. The pictures show 
how they are made and 
planted. At first they are 
protected from the sun, and 
the earth is kept uniformly 
moist. They thrive best if 
started in clean sand, where 
they remain till roots are 
formed and the plants are 
established. 
Sometimes cuttings are inserted in other plants rather 
than in the ground ; they are then grafts. The cleft-graft 
is the usual method for old trees which it is de- 
sired to change 
to another variety. Graft- 
ing of this kind is most fre- 
quently employed on old 
apple trees, but it is equally 
successful with pears. 

One variety is grafted on 
another variety or stock of 

the same kind of plant. Dormant cuttings, 

which are now called cions, are taken from 

the tree it is desired to perpetuate and are inserted on 

the two sides of a cleft on the tree it is designed to change. 



Grafting 




Box OF Cuttings 



THE PLANT 



107 



^ 




The Cleft Graft, showing cion, the 
cions in place, the stub waxed. 



a limb an inch or two 
in diameter having been 
cut off for the purpose. 
The cions are held firmly 
in place by the grip of the 
cleft, a wedge having been 
inserted in the center of 
the stub when the cions 
were inserted. The line 
between bark and wood 
should meet in both stock 
and cion. The end of 
the stub is tightly waxed. 
The operation is per- 
formed in spring, mostly April in the Northern States. 

Sometimes a single bud is inserted underneath the 
bark on the side of a young shoot, either in early spring 

or late summer 

f . , Budding 

(as seen m the 
picture), but this operation, 
known as budding, need not be 
explained here. It is mostly 
employed in the nursery-row 
for the propagation of fruit 
trees. The tree or stock is 
raised from seed ; when not 
more than a year or two old, 
this tree is budded near the 
ground, the top removed above 
the bud ; and the shoot from 
, . the inserted bud becomes the 

Shield-Bud, showmo; the bud, the 

bud being inserted, the stock tied, future tree top. 




io8 TOPIC 6 

6i. The Kinds of Plants and Their Names 

We do not know how many kinds of plants are in the 

world. It is estimated that about 180,000 kinds or 

species have been named and described. 
How many ^ 

kinds of About 6o,ooo are of the lower or so-called 

plants? flowerless plants, as ferns, mosses, sea- weeds, 

fungi, and others. The 120,000 remaining are seed-plants 

or the so-called flowering plants, in which are included 

all the regular agricultural crops. 

Plants are grouped into Families because of certain 
resemblances. More than 600 families are now recog- 
The families nized, nearly half of which are seed plants, 
of plants Rosaceae (Ro-sa'-ce-ee), the rose family, is 

an example ; also Leguminosae, the pea or pulse family ; 
Gramineae, the grass family. 

Plants of still closer resemblance are placed in a Genus 
(plural, genera), which has a definite name. For ex- 
The names ample, all clovers are of the genus TrifoKum ; 
of plants i}^Q different kinds or species of clover are 

distinguished by their special names, as Trifolium rep ens, 
white clover ; red c, T. pratense (pronounced pra-ten'-se) ; 
alsike c, T. hyhridum; crimson c, T. incarnatum. This 
is much like saying that a certain family is Johnson; 
there are different Johnsons, as Paul, Henry, Mary, Susan. 

The genus Trifolium has between 200 and 300 species, 
mostly native in the north temperate zone. Only a 
half dozen or so are well known or important to the 
farmer. Some genera of plants have only one species, 
as Zea, the Indian corn. The genus Secale (pronounced 
Se-ca'-le), to which rye belongs, has two species. Genera 
are, therefore, large or small in the number of species. 



THE PLANT log 

The first of the two names of a plant always is the 
genus. All plants of the same genus, therefore, are 
closely related. Thus, when one sees broom-corn, kafir, 
and sorghum, all named Holcus, one knows that they are 
very much ahke although they may look different ; but 
when one sees sugar-cane named Saccharum, one knows 
that sorghum and cane are very different kinds of plants, 
although syrup may be made from both. When one 
sees Irish potato as Solanum tuberosum and sweet potato 
as Ipomcea Batatas (I-po-me'-a), one knows that they are 
not closely related even though called potatoes, and one 
infers that the cultivation may not be similar for the 
two. When one finds that the common morning-glory is 
Ipomcea purpurea, one is interested in the relationship 
with the sweet potato and wonders how it can be. 

REVIEW 

What are the classes of living things? 

Describe some of the differences between animals and plants. 
Name some of the lowest forms in each case. 

What is the office of the root? How are the materials in the 
ground taken into the plant? Describe the root-hairs. 

How is the food taken from the air? What is chlorophyll? 
starch ? 

Is there digestion in plants ? Explain. 

What is sap ? ash ? transpiration ? 

What are dependent and independent plants ? 

Explain what you mean by host, parasite, fungus. Wliat is a 
spore ? 

What are bacteria? 

Discuss plant diseases. How are such diseases treated? 

Explain the parts of a flower. 

Describe the act of pollination. 

What is meant by crossing ? Why do we sometimes cross plants ? 



I TO TOPIC 6 

How and why are seeds scattered or dispersed ? 
What is germination ? What is the embryo ? 
Discuss methods of saving and keeping seeds. 
Explain seed-testing. 
How do plants propagate ? 
Explain division, layers, cuttings, grafts. 

What can you say about the kinds and families of plants ? How 
are they named? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Germinate radish, wheat, and bean seeds between moist blotters. 
Note and describe the change that takes place in each kind 
of seed. 

How do such plants as apples, corn, and potatoes obtain their 
food from the soil? Why is it that tall trees are not easily over- 
turned during violent storms ? What happens to the roots of cul- 
tivated plants when the soil becomes water-logged? You fre- 
quently notice barren spots in cultivated fields ; what would be 
your suggestions regarding the improvement of such places ? 

Gather a handful of weeds or other succulent growing plants. 
If postal or other dehcate scales are available, weigh the plant 
material. Place in a warm dry place and leave for several days 
until the material becomes very dry. Weigh again, and note the 
difference in the relative weights of the green and dry material. 
What part of the plant material disappeared in the drying process? 
Place the dry material in a shovel or in a metal pan and burn. 
Heat the pan over glowing coals until all of the dark color has dis- 
appeared from the ash. What part of the plant disappeared in the 
burning ? What part is left ? 

Refrain from watering a potted geranium or some other com- 
mon house plant until it begins to wilt. Water the plant and note 
what happens. 

Make a Hst of the principal crops grown in your neighborhood. 
After each plant mention the diseases that commonly attack it. 
Describe how each plant disease is controlled. 

Bring flowers of different kinds to school. Try to find the dif- 
ferent parts of each. Note particularly whether the blossoms are 
staminate or pistillate. Cut open the pistils of some of the flowers 
and see whether you can find the ovules or forming seeds. 

What insect is most useful to man as a poUinizer of cultivated 
plants? What plants grown at home have to be pollinized by in- 
sects ? Which are self-fertile ? 



THE PLANT iii 

Make a list of all the common wild plants with which you 
are acquainted. Tell how the seeds of each are dispersed or scat- 
tered. In walking through an old pasture or the woods in late 
autumn, what seeds are likely to catch to your clothing ? 

What part of the wheat kernel is used as human food? As 
food for farm animals? Make a list of the products that are ob- 
tained from the corn kernel. Make a list of the seeds that are used, 
in whole or in part, as human food. 

Where are the seeds grown that are sown on your farm? 

Make a sawdust or sand-box germinator as described on page 103. 
Test all of the ear seed corn that will be planted on your farm, 
or on the farm of a neighbor, next spring. If no corn is grown, 
count out 100 seeds taken from a sample of the most important 
crop raised on your place, and test their germination between moist 
blotting papers. Make note of the percentage of the seeds that 
show strong and weak germination, and those that do not germinate 
at all. 

Make a list of all of the cultivated plants grown on your farm, 
and after each plant indicate the method of propagation. 

Propagate some of the common house plants such as geranium, 
house ivy, wandering jew, by cuttings, placing the cuttings in 
a pot or box of moist earth until well rooted. Then repot or trans- 
plant into permanent window boxes. 

Bring branches of apple or other kind of fruit-tree branches to 
school. Practice making cleft-grafts until you can make one that 
is nearly perfect. At the proper season, do some real grafting out 
of doors. Try grafting a cion from one variety of apple into the 
branch of another variety of apple. 

Make a list of the cultivated and most common wild plants 
growing on your farm. Try to find out the family to which each 
belongs, as well as the genus and species. Note how many of the 
plants belong to the same family and thus are related although 
apparently quite different in character. 



TOPIC 7 

THE ANIMAL 

All the products of farming are derived from plants 
and animals. Sometimes the farmer has valuable build- 
ing-stone on his property, or mineral, but the quarrying 
and mining of it is not farming. He may utilize the 
water-power of a creek or a river, but if he were to sell 
the power to others the business would not be a part of 
his occupation of farming any more than would the 
selling of earth that contained ore. The farmer rears 
plants and animals. The plant factor we have considered ; 
we are now to study the animal. 

62. The Mother 

One day a new calf lies in the field, or stall. Its legs 
are long and it seems not to know how to use them. 
The cow and Not old enough to be afraid, yet it is evident 
her calf that the world is a strange place to it. Only 

one thing it knows, and that is its mother. And the 
mother is aware of her calf. She has a new behavior 
to-day. She is ready to defy the world. A kind of 
blind instinct impels her to stand by her calf, to care for 
it, to protect it. Her instinct is no longer for herself 
alone. 

One day a nest of eggs is found in the haystack. Pres- 
ently there is a brood of chicks, fluffy and tender. The 



THE ANIMAL 



113 



center of their world is the mother's wings ; from this 
refuge they make their httle explorations and run back 
when strange sounds arise. And the mother xhe hen and 
has a new interest, the interest to be with ^^^ ^^^^^ 
her chicks, to cluck them home, to pick for them the 
tender morsels, to hover them from cold and danger. 
No matter how big the man, she is ready to raise her 
feathers and attack him if he molests her family. 

Here is the sense of responsibility for another, the duty 
to protect those of similar blood and birth. Perhaps 
here is the beginning of that instinct which The interest 
has been called otherism, which is unselfish, ^^ *^® o*^®^ 
thinking first of another's welfare. The regard for mate 
and for offspring is a large force in nature. The regard 
for mother is a large force, modifying the action of self- 
preservation and self-interest. 

63. The Companion 

Many animals like company. So true is this that we 
speak of herds of cattle, droves of horses, flocks of sheep. 
Young colts and steers bunch themselves to- Many animals 
gether. Cattle pasture mostly in irregular ^^^y together 
lines, and they lie together at night. It is often easier 
to drive a flock of sheep than to drive a single animal. 
It is a common saying that sheep follow a leader. If 
there is one hog in a wallow, we are to look for two and 
more. We call the chickens, not one chicken at a time. 
Geese hiss at us in companies. Turkeys roost together in 
trees. These companionable habits are to be understood 
in the handling of the animals. Perhaps diseases are 
spread because of these habits. 

Not all animals seek companions. We see cats wander- 



114 TOPIC 7 

ing over the fields alone. How is it with dogs? Crows 
fly in flocks. What is the habit of hawks ? 

64. The Animal Kingdom 

The domestic animals of the farm are mammals and 
birds. Yet there are other classes of animals that di- 
Animais and rectly interest the farmer, chief of which are 
the farmer |-]^g numberless insects. Fish should receive 
more attention from the farmer. They are good sources 
of food. Most farms contain pools or streams or springs 
from which good fish-ponds could be constructed. In 
them the food fishes, rather than the game fishes, should 
be grown. In some parts of the world fishes are bred 
and reared as regularly as are other animals, as a product. 
An acre of water may yield more food than an acre of land. 

While the farmer should attempt to understand the 
domestic animals well, he should also know the wild 
_ animals of his neighborhood. They are in- 

The wild life . . , 

terestmg m themselves. The farmer should 
try to enlist many of them in his service. The animals 
that destroy crops and poultry should be known to him 
as to their habits and something of their .Kfe-history, 
such as the woodchuck, ground squirrel, gopher, prairie 
dog, weasel, skunk. Farmers cannot afford to raise rats 
and mice. Farming depends on the forces and condi- 
tions of nature. 

One does not know any kind of animal well until one 
is familiar with its life-history. This history comprises 
The life- the various events in the life of the animal 

history from birth to death : how it begins life, how it 

grows and feeds, how it propagates, how it migrates or 
hibernates, how old it lives to be, what are its habits. 



THE ANIMAL 



115 



The number of species or kinds of animals in the world 
is not yet known. The species of the so-called higher 
animals are not very numerous. Insects are How many 
much more numerous than all other classes ammais? 
put together. The great Linnaeus, the Swedish naturalist 
with whom begins the modern system of naming plants 
and animals, had described and named animals, in 1758, 
to the number of 4236. In 1859, Agassiz and Bronn esti- 




Llama of South America, Oxe of the Native Domestic Animals 

mated the total kinds of animals in the world to be 129,530. 
In 1912, Pratt estimated, the number at 522,400. This 
number is now increased by discoveries and recent 
studies. The numbers in some of the main classes were 
then (191 2) stated as follows: 

Mammals 3)5oo 

Birds i3)000 

Reptiles 3)5oo 

Fishes i3)Ooo 

Mollusks (shell-fish) 61,000 

Insects 360,000 



ii6 



TOPIC 7 




Turkey, Native in North 
America 



The number of domesti- 
cated animals is very small in 
comparison with the domes- 
ticated plants. There are 
probably not more than fifty 
species of all classes, aside 
from certain pets. The west- 
ern hemisphere has con- 
tributed only two of much 
importance, the llama and the 
turkey ; and the turkey is 
only partially domesticated. 



Why animals 
are useful 
to man 



65. The Use of Animals by Man 

Man is not able to overcome difficulties and to contend 
with the forces of nature until he multipHes his power. 
He multiplies it by the use of a club to at- 
tack his enemies, by a spear, a stick with 
which to dig in the ground, a knife, a hoe, 
a plow ; eventually he multiplies it enormously by great 
machines driven by water, steam, or electricity. 

Some races of men early learned to multiply their 
power by enslaving animals. They could apply more force 
and move faster from place to place, transport heavier 
loads. They invented wheels. In time they conquered the 
races (as the red men) who did not use animals or wheels. 

There are millions of farmers in the world to-day who 
use neither animals nor machines. They are laborers, 
„ , accomplishing what lies within the power of 

vs. animal their limbs, aided by a few simple tools, 
labor rp^ them the animal is a source of food rather 

than of power. Usually they cannot afford to keep 



THE ANIMAL 117 

domestic food animals aside from poultry, but they may 
supply their needs from fishes, shell-fish, and other aquatic 
animals. In some countries certain insects and reptiles 
are eaten by classes of the people. 

66. The Farm Live-Stock 

Most of the farm food animals in this country are 
reared on cheap feed, and often on cheap land, on the 
materials that cannot be used for human xhe farm 
food, or sold to advantage on the market, animals 
Good crops usually pay the farmer better than the animals 
that might be fed on them ; and a given quantity of 
cereal grains will sustain more human beings than will 
the animals that may be reared on this grain. A few 
sheep, for example, may be profitable because they clean 
the fields and consume low-grade products, whereas a 
large flock for which feed has to be purchased and which 
demand much housing and care, might be kept on the 
same farm at a loss. 

In short, one of the advantages of keeping live-stock 
is that it may make use of the cheaper and coarser un- 
marketable produce of the farm, as corn- rj.^^ ^^^ ^^^ 
stalks, straw, the lower grades of hay, and cheap food of 
the grain product of lesser value. To the ^ ^"^ 
credit of the animals should be reckoned the value of 
the manure and the fact that they make more or less 
continuous employment for labor. 

Farming is a combination occupation, and all the 

products must be used in one way or another, „ . , 

•^ ' How animals 

and all the equipment must be utiHzed. areutuized 
A certain number of live-stock is necessary °" *^® ^^^^ 
to keep the business balanced, to maintain rotations, and 



ii8 TOPIC 7 

to provide a continuous farm operation. Most farms con- 
tain land that is adapted only to pasture. 

The raising of hogs extensively in the corn-belt is a 
profitable way of utilizing waste and low-grade corn in 
connection with beef -production, supplemented with 
pasture and sometimes with skim milk. It would not be 
profitable to raise hogs if the corn had to be grown for 
them alone ; the corn would be too valuable (the pork 
would cost too much). 

The milk for city markets is produced mostly on farms 
that have other products to sell ; often these products 
are the more profitable, but the dairy cattle keep the 
farm going. 

Farms may be devoted largely to one kind of live-stock 
as a specialty, and to the exclusion of the necessary crops ; 
Animals as but Only high grades of stock or products, 
a specialty ^^d an unusually good market, will allow of 
such an enterprise. These farms are likely to be un- 
profitable ; it is only when the product is so superior as 
to constitute a class by itself that it can compete with 
similar products raised by the cheap feed and cheap labor 
of the common farms. Breeding-stock is one of the high 
class products. In general, the farm itself determines 
the number of animals to be kept. 
Why animals Animals are reared by man for the follow- 

are kept [^g purposes : 

I . As pets or companions : cat, dog, pony, canary 
bird, goldfish. 

Purposes for ' ° 

which animals 2. As beasts of burden : horse, mule, 
are used donkey, OX, buffalo, camel, llama, elephant. 

3. As meat or flesh producers: cattle, sheep, swine, 
poultry, fish, oysters. 



THE ANIMAL 



IIQ 



4. As producers of other food products (milk, eggs, 
honey) : cow, goat, poultry, bees. 

5. As producers of other than food materials, such as 
wool, hair, hides, fur, horn, bone, silk, plumes, and feathers, 
materials for fertihzer. Some animals yield returns in all 
these subdivisions, as the reindeer ; and most animals meet 
more than one class of needs of their owners. In North 
America, about 34 per cent of human food is from animals 
and their products, and about 56 per cent from cereals, 
vegetables, and fruits. Man could not now sustain him- 
self in comparative comfort without the domestic animals. 



^Vati/ccf Crops $5.1,91.000,000. 
VaU cf Domc^Kc-AnLmas ci^raTms $ 1,1 bO 000.000. 




i,i.9a3,m , 




2La9,JS'0 



•.'&:*(^. 



^9 I^JbU 



•}^f^fTH 



3?UT,§M 



Live-Stock in United States 



67. Extent of Animal Industry 

In 1910 the total value of all domestic animals on farms 
in the United States was $4,760,000,000 ; the total value 
of all the crops in 1909 was $5,487,000,000. ^^^^ i-^^.g^^^i, 
The total population in the United States industry in the 
proper in 1910 was 91,972,266. The total ^^^^^wl^^ 
number of domestic animals in different 
classes in 1910 was as follows : 



I20 TOPIC 7 

Cattle 61,803,866 

Horses, mules, etc 24,148,580 

Swine 58,185,676 

Sheep 52,447,861 

The average value to the farm of total live-stock in 
1910 was $774.00, and to the acre $5.60, showing marked 
increases over 1900. The value of crops to the farm in 
1909 was $862, and to the acre $16.30. It will be seen 
that animals and crops are somewhat alike in value, with 
the crops in the lead. 

In Canada the value of the live-stock in 191 1 was 
$381,915,505. The number of horses was 2,598,958; all 

m/mm miiiiiiuiiuummih. 





339L>.0e3 



2.39? Q3?. 



3.b5If.nP 



2,nii.:>oo. 



5llQ5.2(ol. 



Live-Stock Production in Canada. — Numbers of the Different Animals 

horned cattle, 5,526,083; sheep, 2,174,300; swine, 
3,634,778; poultry, 31,793,261. These figures may be 
studied in comparison with those on pages 8, 14. 



68. The Nourishment of the Animal 

Solid and liquid materials are taken by the animal 
through the mouth; these constitute the nourishment. 
How the Gases are inhaled through the lungs and 

animal lives j-g^j^g pg^j.^ \^ ^]-^g working processes. The 

solid foods are " organized " ; that is, they have been 
built up or compounded, first and last, by plants. 



THE ANIMAL 121 

We have learned much in recent years about the uses 
of the different foods in the animal system, and this 
subject we shall discuss in a later part of the book (Topic 
22). The four-footed animals have practically the same 
organs as man, performing the same functions. We may 
trace very briefly the process of nutrition. 

The sohd foods are first crushed by the teeth. They 
are masticated. The jaws are controlled by strong and 
powerful muscles. The carnivorous animals xhe teeth and 
(those that eat flesh) tear and chop and cut *^^ mouth 
their food, the jaws moving up and down. In the her- 
bivorous animals (those that live on vegetable matter, as 
cattle, sheep, goats, horses), the jaws move sidewise as 
well as up and down, and the food is ground ; usuafly the 
material is chewed on one side of the mouth till the 
muscles are tired, and then shifted to the other side. 

In the mouth saliva is added to the food, beginning the 
process of digestion by causing certain changes in the 
material. In a full-grown ox the secretion of saliva is 
more than one hundred pounds in twenty-four hours, and 
in the horse about eighty-four pounds. 

In the stomach and intestines the digestion is completed, 
the nutritive elements being reduced to such liquid condi- 
tion that they can be distributed through the 
body to repair wastes and build new tissues ; stomach and 
the remainder is discarded as waste. In the ^^^^^^^^^^ 
processes of digestion certain injurious elements are de- 
veloped, and some of these are changed by the liver and- 
passed off in the urine and perspiration ; the liver similarly 
disposes of some of the products of wear and tear of the 
muscles. The liver also secretes bile, which is discharged 
into the intestines, aiding in the processes of digestion. 



122 TOPIC 7 



The blood is the carrier and the purifier. It distributes 
building material to all parts of the body, and removes 
The blood and the waste. The kidneys are filters, removing 
kidneys ^]^g injurious and worn materials from the 

blood and disposing of them in the urine. The blood is 
pumped through the arteries by the heart and it returns 
through the veins. 

The pulse is the throbbing of an artery, indicating the 
heart action. By putting the ends of the fingers over a 
The pulse of main artery that is close to the skin, one may 
animals f^g} ^]^q pulse. In the horse the pulse is 

usually felt on the lower jawbone, the operator standing 
on the left side of the animal ; in the ox or cow, the pulse 
may be taken on the right jaw, the operator standing 
on the left side and reaching over the neck ; in the sheep 
and dog it is usually taken on the inside of the hind leg. 
A full, strong, regular pulse indicates a good heart and a 
condition of health. The pulse of the horse is 36 to 40 
beats a second ; of the ox or cow, 45 to 50 ; sheep and 
pig, 70 to 80 ; dog, 90 to 100. It is more rapid in young 
animals and also under excitement. 

The temperature of the body is associated with the 
activity of the tissues and the circulation of the blood. 
Animal tem- although it is regulated by perspiration and 
perature other factors. In the horse it is about 

100° F. ; ox, about loi to 102° ; sheep and pig, 103° ; dog 
variable, about 101° ; poultry, 107° to 108°. 

Breathing (respiration) delivers O to the blood ; it dis- 
charges the CO2 that is released in the wear and tear. 
The breath- The air is taken in by the lungs, through the 
ing nostrils and windpipe ; in the air-sacs of the 

lungs the O passes to the blood and the CO-, from it. The 



THE ANIMAL 123 

number of respirations (rapidity of breathing) in the horse 
is 8 to 10 to the minute; ox or cow, 12 to 15; sheep, 
12 to 20; pig, 10 to 15 ; dog, 15 to 20. 

69. Hygiene and Care 

The domestic animals, having the same general make-up 
as man, are affected by the conditions that affect him. Be- 
cause they withstand filth, darkness, and abuse does not 
mean that they thrive because of these conditions, but 
that they live in spite of them, being perhaps more hardy. 

Nutritious food, pure water, fresh air, sunlight, clean 
bodies and clean quarters, exercise, protection from 
sources of contagion, are as essential for good Essentials of 
iive-stock as for human beings. Sanitary animal welfare 
stables and yards and clean animals are not only at- 
tractive in themselves, but they insure clean products. 
One cannot pro- 
duce clean milk 
in filthy dingy 
stables any more 
than clean foods in 

slovenly factories Modern Dairy Stable. — The cows are in two 
or kitrhprm lines, facing a central walk or thoroughfare. 

The farmer owes it to his animals that they shall be 
healthy and comfortable. He also increases the yield 
and the power for work thereby. We now know, also, 
that the domestic animals have a close relation to the 
public health in the spread of diseases to man. 

Stables and folds are now built to be warm and yet to 
have good ventilation, to be light, easily Preventing 
cleaned, provided with water, and with disease 
facilities for handling food and bedding. Old stables are 




124 TOPIC 7 

remodeled to secure these conditions and facilities. 
Stabled animals are groomed. The first signs of disease 
are detected. Animals are quarantined when recently 
arrived in a section, if they have disease or have been 
exposed to infection, or if they come from a suspected 
region ; this protects the other animals. 

70. The Judging of Animals 

Persons may not agree on what is a good animal or 
what is an indifferent one. The custom has recently 
arisen, therefore, of agreeing to certain marks or con- 
formations that should be taken into account in judging 
or estimating an animal. 

Each mark or "point" is given a certain percentage in 
a perfect scale of 100, and the animal to be judged is 
How animals scored on every point. Thus, a perfect score 
are judged fQj. ^^^ shape of the chest might be 6 ; the 
given animal might be scored only 4 or 5, if -the chest is 
deficient ; the shape of the rump might be 6 ; of the 
quarters, 4 ; the character and color of the coat, 8 ; the 
form of head, 2. At fairs and other exhibitions animals 
are now commonly judged by score-card, and many of 
the breed associations have adopted scales of points. 
Judging an animal by a score-card is a good class exercise. 

Score-card judging considers the outward form, or the 

conformation, of the animal. These forms may also 

indicate the capabilities of the animal. Yet 

The score-card i , / <• 1 , , • i i r 

the performance record is the real test of 

the animal, — what it can do, how much product it can 

yield, how much food it requires to produce a given result. 

The making of these records requires considerable time, 

and a careful test of the animal. 



THE ANIMAL 125 

71. Wild Birds 
Nearly all the common native birds are active helpers 
of the farmer in destroying insects. They should be 
protected and encouraged. The most active The native 
enemies of birds are usually English sparrows, "'' ^ 
squirrels, cats, egg-collectors, boys with guns and shng- 
shots Cats should be kept at home, the same as dogs 
or pigs, and they should be watched very closely. They 
are very sly in killing young birds and may not be de- 
tected All bird-killing cats should be destroyed. A 
bell on the cat warns old birds, but not young ones. 

In severe winter weather the birds should be fed. 
Suet or split bones attached to trees attract them. In 
summer, nesting-places should be provided. Feeding the 
Those birds that naturally nest in holes m "^ 
trees usually take readily to bird-houses. Abundant 
shrubbery and a few good trees attract the birds. Drink- 
ing places should be made. Birds soon learn where they 
are welcome and safe. 

Nesting-boxes should be protected from cats as well as be 
attractive to the birds. The following directions show one method 
(Cora A Smith): "A most satisfactory cat-proof box for a blue- 
bird can be made of weather-stained boards, if the following pre- 
cautions are taken: the hole should be well near the top with no 
perch near; the roof should slope from the back toward the front 
and should project about three inches. If the box is deep, the 
voung bluebirds find it difficult to leave the house until they are 
'strong and able to care for themselves, and this is a great advantage. 
The roof prevents rain from beating in and keeps the cats otit. 
From whatever direction the cat may attempt to reach the hole, 
the projecting roof stands in the way of reaching the nest Twelve 
by six by fix inches are good dimensions for such a house. U 
should be placed eight to fifteen feet above the ground." 



126 TOPIC 7 

Chickadees and house-wrens enter a hole i-^ inches across, but an 
EngHsh sparrow cannot enter. Houses intended for bluebirds 
and martins may be closed until the birds arrive, so that the spar- 
rows cannot build in them first. 

72. Insects 

The loss of crop from insects is enormous, and much of 
it can be prevented. Every farm should have means for 
combating insects, in the form of various kinds of 
sprayers. If the crop is liable to attack it should be 
watched closely in order to meet the insects when they 
first appear. 

The insect goes through certain changes. The first 

How the state is the egg. Often the eggs are in large 

insect changes clusters and Can be collected easily, as those 

orm ^£ ^j^^ ^^^^ caterpillar and the tussock 

and gypsy moths. 

From the egg hatches the larva, which may be a grub 

or a caterpillar. In this stage most injurious insects 

work the greatest damage, and the remedies 

The la.rva. 

should be applied with vigor. The slugs of 
the potato- beetle are the larvae. The larvae are sometimes 
called '^ worms," but the true worms (as the earthworm 
or angleworm) are very different animals, and do not 
go through the same transformations as insects. 

The third state is the pupa, in which the insect is 
dormant or inactive, usually wrapped in a cocoon. The 
The pupa and cocoons of many species are easily gathered, 
imago i^ ^g fi-om the thread of the silkworm cocoon 

that silk is derived. From the pupa comes the mature 
insect, or imago, as fly, hornet, beetle, butterfly and 
moth. 



THE ANIMAL 127 

III some insects the transformation is incomplete ; for 
example, there is not a distinct larval stage in the true 
bugs like the leaf -hoppers and chinch-bugs. 

In their food-taking habits insects are of three classes, — • 
those that bite, chew, or eat the plant, those that punc- 
ture the plant and suck the juices, and those ^^ 

^ •' ' How insects 

that lap their food. take their 

Of the biting insects are the beetles, such °° 
as potato-beetle and rose-chafer, and all the caterpillars. 
Of the sucking insects are all plant-Hce, all scale insects, 
and the true bugs with beaks, such as tarnished plant- 
bug and stink-bug. Of the lapping insects the flies are 
examples. The materials or substances used for killing 
insects are known as insecticides. 

The chewing and lapping insects may be killed by 
poisonous materials, which they may eat or lick up, as 
arsenic and paris green. The sucking kinds are killed' 
by substances that injure the insect externally, as lime- 
sulfur and kerosene emulsion. 

The remedies for insects should be learned from 

the most recent bulletins. The followiner formulas, P^^yj^S 

° ' materials 

however, are standard : 

Arsenate of lead can be applied in a stronger mixture without 
injuring the foliage than can other arsenical poisons. It is there- 
fore much used against beetles and other insects 

IiiSGcticifips 

that are hard to poison. It is bought in the form of 
a paste or a powder. The paste should be mixed thoroughly with 
a small amount of water before placing in the sprayer; other- 
wise the nozzles will clog. The powder may be appUed dry or 
mixed with water. Arsenate of lead may be safely used with 
bordeaux or lime-sulfur. It is used in strengths varying from 4 
to 10 pounds to the 100 gallons, depending on the kind of insect 
to be killed. Of course, the material is very poisonous. 



128 TOPIC 7 

Kerosene emulsion is composed of ^ pound of hard, soft, or whale- 
oil soap, I gallon of water, and 2 gallons of kerosene. The soap is 
dissolved in hot water; this is then removed from the fire, and 
while it is still hot the kerosene is added. The liquid should be 
pumped back into itself for five or ten minutes or until it becomes 
a creamy mass. If properly made the oil will not separate on 
cooling. 

For use on dormant trees, the emulsion should be diluted with 
5 to 7 parts of water ; for killing plant-hce on foliage, with 10 to 
15 parts of water. Crude oil emulsion is made in the same way 
by substituting crude oil in place of kerosene. The strength of oil 
emulsions is frequently indicated by the percentage of oil in the 
diluted liquid, as follows : 

For a lo-per-cent emulsion, 17 gallons of water is added to 3 
gallons of stock emulsion. 

For a 15-per-cent emulsion, 10-^ gallons of water is added to 3 
gallons of stock emulsion. 

For a 20-per-cent emulsion, 7 gallons of water is added to 3 
gallons of stock emulsion. 

For a 25-per-cent emulsion, 5 gallons of water is added to 3 
gallons of stock emulsion. 

Lime-sulfur is one of the best insecticides for scale. It is also 
a good fungicide. A standard preparation may be purchased ; or 
it may be made by this formula : 90-per-cent pure lime, 40 pounds ; 
sulfur, 80 pounds ; water, 50 gallons. Moisten the sulfur into a 
paste ; slake the lime in 10 gallons hot water ; add water to make 
50 gallons, and boil for an hour. Take off the clear liquid and 
keep as a stock solution; dilute with water as needed when used. 

REVIEW 

Whence come all the products the farmer raises? 

What do you mean by the ''animal kingdom"? Name the 
main classes of animals. How numerous are they in species? 

What does "life-history" mean to you? 

How are animals used by man ? 

Name the kinds of farm live-stock. What is the place or office 
of live-stock in agriculture ? 



THE ANIMAL 129 

For what purposes are animals reared by man? 

How extensive is the live-stock industry in the United States 
and Canada? 

How does the animal obtain its food ? What is the nature of this 
food? 

What is mastication? What is the office of. saliva? 

Where is digestion completed ? Name some of the offices of the 
liver. 

What is the office of the blood ? 

What is the pulse ? How felt ? 

Name the blood heat (temperature) of some of the animals. 

Describe breathing (respiration). 

What can you say about keeping animals healthy? 

What do you understand by sanitation? Describe a sanitary 
stable. 

Explain what you mean by the judging of animals. By score- 
card. 

Discuss wild birds in relation to farming. 

Discuss insects as they affect farming. 

What are the changes or transformations through which insects 
go? 

How do insects take their food ? How are they destroyed ? 

THOUGHT-PROBLEMS AND INQUIRIES 

Relate an incident you have observed or experienced among 
domesticated or wild animals in which the mother fought to pro- 
tect her offspring. 

Make a list of all the wild and tame animals with which you are 
acquainted, classifying them according to whether they are gre- 
garious (companionable) or solitary in their habits. 

Give the main life-history of some animal you know. 

Which of the wild animals common to your section are bene- 
ficial and which are injurious to agriculture ? 

What are the most profitable animals on your farm? Why? 
Make a cardboard mount, i8''X24'' in size, displaying samples or 
pictures of all the useful articles that are produced by cattle. There 
may be some difficulty in devising ways to preserve and mount 
such things as milk, butter, and cheese, but this problem may be 
solved by the use of small air-tight bottles, and the like. 



I30 TOPIC 7 

What does it cost in your neighborhood to raise a dairy heifer 
calf until she is two years of age? What is the average cost a 
pound of raising a 200-lb. hog? 

Consult the records of your last school or federal census, and 
from the information thus obtained, make a list showing the 
number of dairy cows, beef cattle, horses, swine, and sheep in your 
county. Also in the State. How do these figures compare with 
those of the preceding census ? 

How many kinds of ruminant and cud-chewing animals have 
you seen? List the wild and domesticated animals that abound 
on your farm or which are to be found in your section. Classify 
them according to whether they are herbivorous, carnivorous, or 
omnivorous in their habits of eating. 

Using a score-card as a guide, score your own or some neigh- 
bor's cow barn and cows as to hygiene and care. Make a list of 
some of the points that bring down the score, and which could be 
remedied at slight expense. 

Using another score-card score one or more of the dairy cows in 
your own or in some neighboring herd. How do the score-card 
results compare with the ''performance" record of each animal? 

Make a list of the birds that have been seen in your neighbor- 
hood. Which are transients, i.e., are seen for short periods only 
in the spring and fall? Which nest in your section? Which are 
winter residents? What are the principal foods of the birds that 
nest in your region? 

What are the most destructive insects in your region? De- 
scribe briefly the life-history of those you know best. How is 
each pest controlled ? Is there any relation between certain stages 
or habits in the life-history and the method of controlling each in- 
sect pest? 

CLASS PROBLEM OR PROJECT 

Each pupil should make and install at least one bird-house. 
In the winter months, in those sections where the snow is deep, 
each pupil should maintain at least one bird-feeding station. 



TOPIC 8 

THE MARKET 

For two purposes the farmer raises his products, — 
to supply his own needs, and to sell in the market. 

There are many kinds of markets. Taken together 
they are one of the conditions of farm hfe, and must 
be considered - in all plans. It is not enough that the 
farmer raise crops and live-stock. He must sell them. 
He is a business man as well as a producer. 

73. The Kinds of Markets 

When we speak of ''the market" we may have in 
mind the place at which the produce is sold, as a given 
village or factory ; or we may mean the gen- what the 
eral trade condition, as ''the market for hay market is 
is good." At this time we speak only of the place or 
of the way of selling. 

Usually the market place is the city, village, or rail- 
way station at which the farmer does his trading. For- 
merly he traded farm products for groceries and other 
supplies, but now he usually sells and buys on a cash 
basis, and this is best for all concerned. 

Even when the places where prices are established 
are hundreds of miles away, to the farmer the market 
is the railway station at which he parts with The traveling 
his products. Sometimes the market comes ^^y®^ 
to his door, as when the pick-up wagon of a milk route 

131 



132 TOPIC 8 

stops every day for his milk-cans. Buyers may come for 
apples or eggs. In most cases, however, the farmer 
delivers at the dealer's or at the railway station, and the 
highway between farm and town becomes almost a 
part of his business equipment. 

74. Location with Reference to Market 

The distance of the market and its character may 
determine the kind of farming. The value of a farm, 
if one desires to buy or sell it, depends in part on the 
market to which it has access. 

If one raises perishable crops in small amounts, as 
vegetables or flowers, he should be close to the market 
The market in order that he may save time and keep in 
and the farm touch with prices. The coming of the gaso- 
Hne road-truck shortens the distance, but even then 
both time and fuel are concerned as well as wear and 
tear on the machine. If one delivers fresh milk from 
the farm, he must have a close-by location. General 
mixed farms, that grow the staple foodstuffs, may be 
farther away. 

The man may come into possession of his farm quite 
independently of markets; he then tries to adapt his 
farming to the market conditions in which he finds 
himself. 

75. Direct to Consumer 

The prices of the great staples, as cotton and wool, 
are beyond the control of the single farmer. The values 
are determined by the general conditions of supply 
and demand. 



THE MARKET 133 

Many other products, however, may be sold directly to 
the consumer for special prices, if the farmer is so situated, 
either through direct delivery or by express " selling 
and mail. Many farmers are able to develop direct " 
direct trade with city residents and hotels. This trade 
demands a high grade of product and a regular supply. 
Fruits, vegetables, flowers, and poultry products lend 
themselves to this kind of marketing. The extra cost 
of handling such a trade is usually considerable, and the 
returns may not justify the expense ; this is for the 
farmer to work out with great care. 

Personal delivery or retailing of products to fam- 
ilies, which may be a kind of peddling, is usually not 
profitable if one's time is worth very much. Delivery to 
One must do a considerable volume of busi- the house of 

. - . , . the customer 

ness to pay for frequent trips, and time may 

be worth more on the farm where every stroke should 

count toward greater production or increase in value of 

the property. 

The parcel post provides a way of delivering produce 
directly to the consumer. The government becomes 
the carrier. Postage stamps are cheaper than Parcel post 
horses or motor-cars. In this case the farmer niarketing 
must work up his trade carefully, writing to his cus- 
tomer to find out what he wants and how much and of 
what quality. The farmer should take pains to make 
neat and attractive packages, and to deliver the goods 
fresh and clean. 

While the direct-to-consumer trade is to be encour- 
aged, it cannot be practiced by the great mass of farm- 
ers. Salesmen who make a study of the business, and 
who are reliable, must be depended on for the disposal 



134 



TOPIC 8 



of the bulk of farm produce. Before shipping to a sales- 
man, inquiry should be made as to his commercial 
standing. 

The salesman is a middleman; he stands between 
the producer and the consumer. He is an expert in 
The middle- Selling, in finding markets, in collecting ac- 
^^^ counts, and the like. As most farmers can- 

not put their products into the hands of the consumer, 
so is the middleman a necessity. 

76. The Grade and Pack 

The quality and uniformity of the product have much 
to do with its sale. Many of the standard products, 
Grading the ^s wheat, are sold on grades. Butter is 
produce tested for quahty. Vinegar must attain to 

a certain standard of acidity. 

The establishing of grades sets ideals to the grower; 
in endeavoring to meet the highest grade, he improves 




Good and Poor Packs of Apples 




a Tray of Cauliflower 



his practice. To set ideals in one product is to stimu- 
late ideals in other products and in the management 
of the farm. Careful grading makes for honesty. 
In some products grades are now established by law, 
as for apples in certain States. It is sel- 
dom possible to establish a grade or quality 
in farm products, however, as accurately as in manufac- 



Legal grades 



THE MARKET 



135 



tured goods because there are so many variations be- 
yond the grower's control. These products are not 
turned out by machinery in a factory. 








^1 ^ -^ -^^ y*^\.^'^ 

^ -^ — -' - 
Basket of Celery 




A Good Crate of Melons 



The grades having been defined, it then remains to 
sort the product, and in many cases to hand-pack it. 
The finished package and its contents is Packing the 
called '' the pack." Sorting may be by hand Produce 
or by mechanical devices. Sorters or graders are used 

for potatoes, apples, or- 
anges, peaches, and other 
products. 

The pack depends on the 
receptacle, as box or crate, 
in which the 
goods are to 
be sent to market, 
attention is now given to 
the packing of eggs and 
many kinds of vegetables 
and fruits, and the number in a certain receptacle must be 
exact. The package must be clean, unbroken, and bright, 
and the finished work must be attractive and honest. 
The package need not necessarily be fancy, however. 




The package 

Great 



An Attractive Pack of Sweet 
Corn in the Husk 



136 



TOPIC 8 



Although the fancy pack may bring increase in price, 
it does not always pay the extra cost. Whether to pack 
apples in boxes or barrels becomes a question of expense 
and income. Much depends on the quality of hand 
labor and the ease 
or difficulty of ob- 
taining it. These 
are questions to be 
determined every 
man for himself. 

Sometimes a 

farmer is able to 

estab- 
The brand , . ^ 

lish a 

brand or trade- 
mark, maintained 
by uniform prod- 
ucts of high quali- 
ty, that will greatly 
aid him with cus- 
tomers. Only the best and most careful farmers can es- 
tablish reputation by means of a trade-mark or brand. 
Sometimes the farm is named, and this name may be used 
as a brand. 

77. When to Sell 

A book cannot tell the farmer when to sell his prod- 
ucts, but it may state a few of the conditions. A higher 
To sell early price later in the season does not necessarily 
or late mean a greater income. Nearly all prod- 

ucts shrink in storage and in barns. The dry crops, 
as hay and corn, are not exceptions. The shrinkage in 




Sorting Apples by Mechanical Means 



THE MARKET 137 

weight may run as high as 10 or 15 per cent or even more. 
It is due mostly to the loss of moisture. Potatoes shrink 
from loss of water and decay, and all fresh products may 
be injured by frost. Vermin and insects often cause losses. 

All these risks must be taken into account in hold- 
ing for a higher price, as well as fire risk and insurance 
and the chance that prices may fall rather Holding for a 
than rise. If one is not in need of the in- ^^s^ p"^® 
come at once, the products may be held more readily. 

Often the products are held not so much for an in- 
crease in price, as to wait for a more leisurely season, 
allowing the farmer to catch up his fall work. This 
is true of hay, especially if it is to be baled, and of 
other non-perishable products. 

In discussing the time to sell one must consider 

(i) the chance of a better market; 

(2) the risk of holding ; 

(3) the supply of man and horse help ; 

(4) the need of ready money. 

Having a good product, well graded and well packed, 
the farmer may find it to his advantage to advertize it 
in the periodicals or otherwise ; or he may Advertizing 
advertize his cattle or other live-stock. Once ^^^^ produce 
it was thought that only the "business man," — -the 
merchant — ^ should advertize; but the farmer is now a 
business man and he may employ all the legitimate 
methods of business. The farmer may be a merchant, 
as well as a producer. 

78. Cooperative Marketing 

The people of any community may unite their efforts 
for the purpose of making a better or more uniform 



138 TOPIC 8 

product and of developing more satisfactory marketing 
facilities. Usually an association is formed and incor- 
Cooperation porated under the laws of the State or Prov- 
in marketing [^^^ gQ ^]-^^^ j|- jg responsible and qualified 
to engage in commercial transactions. This is spoken 
of as cooperation. It means working together for a com- 
mon purpose. 

Some of the commonest forms of cooperation are in 
the handling and selling of milk (as by means of cream- 
Kinds of eries), in grain elevators, and in poultry asso- 
cooperation ciations. Such bodies, when well managed, 
have good effect in teaching people how to work together 
and in standardizing the product. Usually a careful 
grading and packing system is part of the cooperative 
enterprise. Storage houses are sometimes owned by 
such associations. 

A true cooperative association is an enterprise in which 
all the stockholders or cooperators take part in the man- 
agement and who share in the risks and profits. The 
association hires a manager and the necessary employees, 
who commonly work for wages, but the shareholders 
partake in the business. 

Certain transactions usually spoken of as coopera- 
tion, are really only co- action : the persons merely agree 
Collective ^^ ^^^ together, to sell, or otherwise to act 
buying and together for the purpose of getting better 

^^^ terms. The technical name is "collective 

bargaining." When several persons join to buy fer- 
tilizers, spraying materials, seeds, feed, securing the 
advantage of wholesale price, they are exercising a co- 
acting relationship ; they may not be cooperating in the 
maintenance, risks^ and gains of an organized undertaking. 



THE MARKET 139 

Both cooperation and co-action are to be encouraged 
in rural communities. The direct results are nearly 
always very important, and the indirect gains in bring- 
ing the people together are likely to be seen in many 
other community undertakings. 

79. Keeping Books 

One should not trust to. memory in money transac- 
tions. Disputes and losses are likely to occur. There 
may be no sufficient evidence in a court of ^^^^^^^ ^f ^he 
law unless there are records made at the time business 
of the transactions. The elaborate systems ^^^^^^ ^^^^ 
of double-entry and commercial bookkeeping are not 
necessary on the farm. A daybook is usually sufficient, 
with a page or more devoted to each of the persons or 
firms with whom business is usually transacted. 

Books for this purpose may be had at stationery stores. 
They are ruled for debits on the left-hand page and 
credits on the right-hand page. The debits are the 
man's obhgations, as cash paid out, crops sold. The 
credits are amounts coming in, for which the farmer 
has exchanged products or labor. The columns should 
be footed frequently, so that one may see how the ac- 
counts stand. 

Small running accounts are now often kept in the 
form of sales-slips given by merchants from whom 
one buys or by dealers to whom one sells on account. 
These constitute records. If the business runs large it 
is better to copy these items into a daybook, retain- 
ing the slips until all the accounts are settled. 



I40 TOPIC 8 

80. Cost-Accounting 

If one would know whether the farm pays a profit, 
one must know what the products cost. One must 
Records of know what crops or animals pay best ; what 
costs fields are most profitable ; when it paid best 

to market certain commodities; whether the farm is 
increasing or decreasing in earning power. This means 
a constant investigation or close oversight of the busi- 
ness, and the keeping of records. 

Cost-accounting begins with an inventory of every- 
thing on the farm. It is usually made in writing when 
there is most spare time and when the un- 

einvenory ^^^^ produce is least. Values should be at- 
tached to each item, as of suppHes and products on hand, 
live-stock, tools, machines, lumber, posts, fence wire, 
cash. 

If there are several columns on a page, new values 
may be entered from year to year ; new tools and sup- 
plies not named at first may be added at the end. Re- 
ceipts and expenses, yields and values, work expended, 
manure and fertilizer applied, rent of land, are to be 
entered as the year proceeds. 

Sometimes persons keep records of individual cows, 
to determine which ones are most profitable. As- 
sociations may be formed for the purpose 
Cow-testing . „ , 

of testmg the cows of the members, all the 
animals being tested alike. 

The cost-account enables the farmer to know how 
his business is running from year to year, discovers the 
leaks, suggests improvements. The farm bureau agent 
often aids the farmers in cost-accounting. Valuable 



THE MARKET 141 

information for the community may be obtained in 
this way. 

REVIEW 

Explain what you mean by ''the market." 
What do you understand by ''the producer"? 
How are farms located with reference to market ? 
What are perishable products ? 
How are products sold directly to the consumer ? 
What is parcel post ? 

What is meant by "direct to consumer"? 
Who is the middleman ? 
Explain what is meant by grade ; by pack. 
Does it always pay the farmer to grade and pack his produce? 
What is meant by a fancy pack ? 
What is a brand ? 

Can you say anything about the time to sell farm produce ? 
Explain cooperation ; co-action. 
How may "books" be kept on the farm? 
What is cost-accounting ? How important is it ? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Where is the market center for the farmers in your region? 
Determine how many miles the different farmers are obliged to 
drive to and from the market every trip. 

What buyers come to the farms in your neighborhood ? How 
extensively do your neighbors sell to them ? 

What produce in your community is sold directly to the con- 
sumer? Do you think it has paid in your region? 

What grades are established by law for the produce raised in 
your community ? How many of the farmers grade and pack by a 
standard ? 

Does anybody of your acquaintance sell his commodities under 
a name or brand ? 

Are there any storage houses, elevators, creameries, and the like, 
in your community? Are there any cooperative societies? 

Do the neighbors buy and sell together to any extent? What 
commodities ? 

Is there any cost-accounting in your neighborhood? 

Are there cow-testing associations? What is their purpose? 



142 TOPIC 8 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS 

Make an outline map of your, township or natural region. On 
this map locate the R. D. route ; also the market center and any- 
thing in the way of public marketing facilities, as creameries, milk 
routes, elevators, storehouses, cotton gins, evaporators, cider mills, 
stockyards, slaughterhouses, packing-houses. 

As a piece of school work, the pupils may make inventories of 
their farms or of their live-stock, with the help of parents and 
others. 



TOPIC 9 

THE COMMUNITY 

Persons associate with each other. They unite their 
efforts to build roads, churches, schoolhouses, to hold 
fairs, to estabhsh business, to found societies, ^, 

' \ ' The com- 

to uphold the laws. Within a certain region munity : what 
they develop the habit of acting together, ^*^^ 
developing a life in common. This small region of similar 
interests, with all the people and the affairs, is called a 
community. Farming is much more than a business or 
an occupation. 

The life of the community is comprised of many affairs 
and activities, as we shall now discover. We are here 
to speak of the farming or rural community. 

8i. The Community has Many Trades and 
Professions 

In our rural community the leading trade or occupation 
is farming. Yet the farmer does not live fpr himself alone. 
There is need of the carpenter, mason, „^ ,. 

^ ' ' Who hves in 

pamter, tmner, blacksmith, harness-maker, the commu- 
wagon-maker, well-digger. Within reach ^^^ 
there must be physicians, veterinarians, dentists, min- 
isters. There must be school-teachers. 

There are also men and women who work out. One 
man has a threshing-machine or saw-mill, another a 

143 



144 TOPIC 9 

ditching-machine, another a hay-press, another a truck 
for picking up the milk or other produce. 

The community divides its work, each person becoming 
more or less skilled in his specialty. No person could 
The division be competent in all these activities, nor 
of labor could he find time to practice in any number 

of them even if he were capable. One person serves 
another, saving the time of the community. 

82. The Community Center 

Usually all these activities relate themselves to some 

one place in the community. Mostly this center is the 

^, , ^ market-place, generally a railway station. 
The focus of 1/ j b j , 1 • 

the com- It is to this place that the people must drive, 

munity There may be stores and shops. Persons 

meet each other. 

In many cases, however, the market-place is in a city of 
considerable size. Then there is likely to be no coming 
together as in a hamlet or a small village. The city is 
itself a community or even a number of communities, 
probably with very Httle farming interest. The real 
farming community centers in a small settlement, or 
sometimes it centers at a church or school-house or 
library or other meeting-place. 

There is no proper size to a community. It may be as 

large as a township, although it is usually less than this. 

The circle of common interests in occupation, 

munity and acquaintanceship, and politics may be one 

the neighbor- j^jig across or it may be five miles. It may 

hood 

be a school district or more. The community 
is large enough to have a center or focusing-point. In 



THE COMMUNITY 145 

this it differs from a neighborhood, which is a small 
group of persons who are in the habit of neighboring, 
borrowing from each other, changing work, the children 
playing together. Its meeting-place, if it has one, is 
probably in a farmhouse. The neighborhood is not a 
business unit. It may have no market of its own, no 
school, no church. The community usually comprises 
several neighborhoods. 



83. The Political Units 

The township or other small governmental division is 
itself divided into parts that depend on votes of the people 
and taxation, such as election districts, school T^• * • ^ • 

. . . ... District in 

districts, highway districts, irrigation dis- which citizens 
tricts. These units become more or less ^°^^ together 
community groups, one community or group maintaining 
its district against all others, and carrying the responsi- 
bility of its own affairs. 

A community of greater or less size undertakes public 
works, as the laying of a drain or ditch affecting many 
properties, the straightening of a creek, the How a com- 
improving of a road, building a bridge, ridding "lunity works 
a region of mosquitoes, projecting irrigation. Usually 
the enterprises that involve more money than can be 
raised by subscription are taken up by more than one 
community ; then the township or the county is asked to 
act through its officials or by public vote. 

The way in which these public movements start and the 
means by which they are finally put into operation are 
excellent subjects for study in any school, for its own 
region. 



146 TOPIC 9 

84. The School Enterprise 

The school supported by funds of the people (taxes) is 
now a regular part of public work. It is expected that 
The sckooi every child shall have school facilities without 
community being sent away from home to live. The 
boy or girl grows up at home, with the protection and 
training of home, and with the education that the farm 
can give. 

Yet it was not so very long ago that schools were main- 
tained wholly by other means, as by gifts, subscriptions, 
rate-paying by the parents according to the 
number of children, religious bodies, private 
corporations. In a democracy, education must be 
supported and controlled by all the people as a public 
necessity. 

Formerly only the literary subjects were taught, such as 
could be learned from books. Then natural science began 
The sciences to find its way into schools, and pupils were 
and vocations \q^ |-q study physiology, physics and chem- 
istry, zoology and botany, geology, as well as geography. 
Mechanics and handicraft were introduced, often in the 
form of manual-training. The older subjects profited 
rather than suffered, for the school was related to the 
affairs of life. 

Now agriculture is being added, with a new range of 
experiments and interests. The agricultural work, is not 
Agriculture confined to the schoolroom ; some of it is 
in schools undertaken at home as a school exercise ; 
and thus are the home and the farm united, each con- 
tributing its part in pubhc education. 

The study of objects as they exist in nature^ of animals 



THE COMMUNITY 147 

and plants as they live and grow, to the end that the 

pupil may see, understand, and appreciate 

them, is now a part of good school work ; 

this is nature-study. All good agriculture is founded on 

nature-study. 

All these enlarging activities of the school demand 
increased funds. The character of the school is a good 
index of the character of the community. 

85. The Club Enterprises 

Clubs of many kinds connected with farm and home 
hfe and with a membership of young people, have recently 
arisen in rural communities. These clubs The club 
aim to interest the members intelligently in ^^®^ 
the raising of better crops and live-stock, in the better 
preparation of food, the better keeping of the house, the 
more enterprising development of the garden. 

The clubs are largely connected with the school, and 
they work out the formal lessons of school hours, applying 
them in daily hfe. They give the pupils something to do 
on their own account, and they stimulate competition in 
excellence. 

Corn clubs have interested many young folks in growing 
more corn to the acre and in understanding the reasons. 
The exhibitions of corn by these clubs and _ 

-^ ^ The many 

their members have stimulated a new inter- kinds of 
est in the crop in the pubKc mind. Sim- ^^^^^ 
ilar results have been accomphshed by potato clubs, 
garden clubs, poultry clubs, cattle clubs, dairy clubs, 
canning clubs, bread-making clubs, sewing clubs, and 
many others. They are developing a new interest in 
country life for the young. 



148 TOPIC 9 

The management and administration of these clubs 
calls for state and county overseers. These officers are 
coming to be of great importance. 

86. Farm and Home Agents 

A specially trained officer or agent has now come to be 
an estabHshed factor in most parts of the United States 
The county ^.nd Canada. His office is to act as a leader 
agent [^i the rural affairs of his region, to collect 

and dispense information, to bring the people together 
in their enterprises, and to be of service as the needs of 
the various communities may require. 

Usually the farm agent represents a county, but he will 

have assistants and cooperators in different parts. More 

agents will be required as time goes on. He 

Many agents 1 ^ 

will be neces- is maintained usually by state and federal 
^^^ funds, supplemented probably by appropria- 

tions from the county board of supervisors. Usually he 
is directly responsible to an organization or society of 
farmers, the membership fees of which also help to main- 
tain the work. He is the agent of a bureau, this bureau 
representing the organized operation of all the forces 
here mentioned. 

Women agents are now developed to aid in the 

household and home-making side, to give definite help 

in choice and preparation of foods and in 

Home demon- ^ ^r i rr^i 

stration general rural welfare work. Inese women 

agents ^^^ usually known as home demonstration 

or home bureau agents. 

The agent is always glad of requests for his or her 
services ; the agency is estabhshed for this purpose. 



THE COMMUNITY 149 

87. Rural Societies 

Societies for mutual improvement are many in the 
open country. They are often organized to further 
some special industry, as the breeding of The societies 
plants or animals, the growing of fruit or of many kinds 
flowers or vegetables, or to look after the interests of a 
particular breed or kind of live-stock. 

Other societies are more general in character, repre- 
senting agriculture as a whole. They may hold fairs or 
give other kinds of exhibitions. 

Some of the societies represent only a few communities 
or even only one, as a local poultry club or a reading- 
club, library club, recreation club, grange, telephone 
society. Such local organizations are to be encouraged, 
if they are unselfish, as they add to the variety and 
opportunities of country life. 

88. The Church 

The moral and rehgious hfe must be actively safe- 
guarded and nourished. In fact there is no good agri- 
culture until the farmer is honest with his The rural 
land, his neighbors, his animals, and his church 
market. The spiritual nature is to be developed as an 
enrichment of life. 

The pastor and the church, the teacher and the school, 
are together the supports of rural life, becoming more 
important as living becomes more complex and as we 
understand our responsibilities more fully. 

The church should be liberally supported. A strong 
church mieans a strong community. It brings the people 



I50 TOPIC 9 

together. It develops the best personal habits and stimu- 
lates public service. It leads the people to seek help 
beyond themselves. 

89. The Highway 

All these community activities demand good roads 
over which to move the produce and on which neighbors 
and friends may travel to the meeting-places. The 
roads tie the community together. 

There are trunk roads connecting great cities and 
markets, affording communication throughout the land. 
The public There must also be well-made side roads as 
roads feeders ; good highways should lead to . the 

focus of the local market, accommodating all the region. 
Every farmer should be given the advantage of easy 
travel, connecting with affairs and with the world. 

Road clubs should be organized to discuss highway 
improvement, to have an eye out for repairs, to take care 
of the roadsides of the members, to keep highway property 
clean, to encourage pubhc sentiment, to cooperate with 
the officials. The maintenance and betterment of high- 
ways should not be left wholly to the town and state. 
Every citizen should feel a personal responsibihty for 
them. 

90. Leadership 

There is now a general demand for better communities. 
Many conferences are called to further the work. The 
idea of " federation " is now strong, by which is meant 
the coming together of the agencies and forces of agri- 
culture and country Ufe. It is one of the '' signs of the 
times." 



THE COMMUNITY 151 

It must not be supposed that the responsibihty for the 
welfare of the community is shifted to these many clubs 
and agencies. There has never been a 

The l6d.(l6r 

time when strong individual leaders are 
so much needed as now in the open country. The multi- 
plication of organizations itself calls for men and women 
of clear minds, positive convictions, and readiness to 
serve the public. These persons should be successful 
in their own lives ; but they must have, also, what is 
called vision, that they may see ahead, looking beyond 
the small affairs of the moment. All leaders see visions. 
''When Joseph of old went down to meet his brothers, 
they saw him afar off and said, with a sneer: 'Behold, 
this dreamer cometh ! ' In all history the The dreamer 
practical men have looked with suspicion, if ^^ dreams 
not with scorn, upon the dreamer. I think this is largely 
the fault of our systems of education, which have mostly 
taught men to hunt for facts and to be satisfied to regard 
them as lifeless things — much as they would cordwood 
or building stone. Yet the great things — which five 
longest in history — have always been developed by the 
dreamers and men of vision, because they carried the 
power to make men think and plan." — H. W. Colling- 
wood. 

REVIEW 

Explain what you understand by a community. How large 
or small may it be ? 

Is the rural community always composed only of farmers ? 

Explain your idea of a community center. 

What is a neighborhood ? 

What do you understand by political units ? 

How important is the school in the rural community ? Why ? 



152 TOPIC 9 

What is nature-study? 

Discuss clubs of any kind, particularly boys' and girls' clubs. 

Where is the farm-bureau or county agent ? What does he do ? 

Is there a woman agent in your county or district? 

How important is the church, and why? 

Explain the necessity of good highways. 

What can you say about leadership? What is a leader? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

How many people make up the community in which you live? 
Make a list of the different trades and professions that are to be 
found in your community. Mention the farmers in your section 
who serve their neighbors through the ownership of some animal 
or specialized farm machine, telling what each does. 

Describe the community in which you live, telling of the schools, 
churches, stores, factories, and other activities. 

Make a list of the various political officers that are to be found in 
your community — town or county. Describe the duties of each. 

What is the school-tax in your community? How much is 
this tax to $1000 valuation? How much money does your school 
get from the state for its support ? Mention some of the ways in 
which your school serves the community. 

Make a list of the clubs or other organizations that are to be 
found in your community and tell of the objects of each. 

Who is your county agricultural agent ? What is his telephone 
number and post-ofhce address ? In what way does he try to serve 
the community ? Who is your home demonstration agent ? What 
does she do? 

What societies or organizations for mutual improvement exist 
in your community? When do they meet? What do they try 
to do? 

What churches are located in your community? Who are the 
pastors ? 

How many miles of improved or hard-surfaced roads are there in 
your township or county ? How many miles of unimproved roads ? 
Tell of some ways in which good roads have helped or will help 
your farm. 

CLASS PROBLEMS 

Discuss ways and means whereby your school, as a unit or by 
breaking up into a number of groups or clubs, can start one or more 



THE COMMUNITY 153 

enterprises that will be of benefit to the community along social 
or economic Hnes. 

What new public movements of any kind have been started 
in your community within a year or so? Any improvement in 
roads, churches, play-grounds, Hbraries, reading-clubs, farm 
bureau, or otherwise ? 

On a map of the township locate the school-houses, churches, 
town hall, fairs, demonstration plots, and other public buildings 
and grounds. 

Has your school helped to collect facts for a farm census? 



TOPIC 10 

CROPPING 

When "the crops" are good, the nation prospers. 
There is work not only for farmers but for railroad 
men, steamship men, merchants, manufacturers. Money 
moves freely, and "business is good." The stock market 
is affected by the crop reports. The crops are more im- 
portant than the mines or the produce of the sea. 

A crop is the yield of a plant, or more often of a planta- 
tion or field of plants. Sometimes we speak of the crop of 
What is meant ^ single plum tree, but usually we think of 
by a " crop "? the produce of the orchard. With the grains 
we seldom think of the crop or yield of one plant, but of 
the return by the acre. 
A crop may be 

of forage, as hay, straw, and fodder ; 

of grain, as wheat, barley, buckwheat, corn, oats, 

rice ; 
of roots or underground parts, as turnips, carrots, 

mangels, potatoes ; 
of fiber, as flax, hemp, cotton ; 
of seeds, as beans, peas ; 

of some special part used in manufacture, as broom- 
corn ; 
of an extracted product, as syrup from sorghum and 
cane, sugar from the beet. 
154 



CROPPING 155 

91. The Crop-Scheme 

The ability merely to grow a good crop does not make 
a person a good farmer. He may spend more effort and 
money on the crop than it is worth. 

It may not pay, for example, to grow 350 bushels of 
potatoes to the acre. It will depend on the extra expense 
involved in tillage and in fertihzer, and The plan of 
whether the grower neglects other farm work cropping 
for the sake of growing potatoes. He may have to invest 
too much capital in tools and teams to make the extra 
yield profitable. 

That is, the farm as a whole, rather than one crop, 
must pay. 

The character of the soil itself may not be the control- 
ling factor in the growing of any crop. For example, it 
is possible to grow wheat as a money crop crops and 
only on lands level enough and friable enough ^^^^ regions 
to enable the use of light machinery. In many regions 
well adapted to wheat, the crop is not grown on a large 
scale because other crops pay better. This is the case 
in a good part of the corn-belt. Here corn is more profit- 
able ; and where corn is grown, hogs are raised. In many 
parts of the cotton-belt wheat may be grown successfully, 
but it would not pay to supplant the cotton. 

Yet wheat is much grown outside the wheat regions, 

that is, outside those parts in which it is the main money 

crop. In these cases the wheat becomes one „^ , , .^ 
^ ^ ^ Wheat outside 

of the parts in a general plan of mixed hus- the wheat 
bandry. It is grown not alone for its market ^®s^°^^ 
value as wheat, but because it is a good crop with which 
to seed grass or clover, helping to maintain a good rota- 



156 TOPIC 10 

tion. The straw is also valuable as bedding when many 
animals are kept. 

Whether it is advisable to grow any crop, therefore, 
depends on many factors. We may read that straw- 
berries produce great returns, yet only a few persons 
can make any profit or derive any satisfaction in growing 
them. The farmer must grow the crops that are adapted 
to his kind of business. 

We have already learned (Topic i) that farming is not 
a single business, but many kinds of occupations and 
enterprises. All kinds agree, however, in the fact that 
the yields are products of living growing things (plant 
and animal) and that they come out of the earth. 

92. The Green-Manuring Crops 

Part of the cropping scheme is to provide green crops 
to turn under for manure. As most of the carbon in the 
Crops to plow pla^nt comes from the air, the soil receives a 
under ^lear gain of just that much humic material 

when the plant is plowed under. The mineral matter 
which the plant has taken from the land is returned 
again, but in a form easily used by other plants. 

Two general groups of crops are used as green- 
manures : 

Non-legumes, as rye, oats, rape, turnips, buckwheat, 

and all grasses. 
Legumes (p. 108), as cowpea, soybean, peanut, 
vetches, and clovers. 
The gain to the soil in using the first group is mostly 
in organic matter alone, but with the second group there 
is a gain of nitrogen as well. This gain of nitrogen may 
often amount to 40 or 50 pounds to the acre. 



CROPPING 157 

To be of value as green-manure, a crop should be hardy, 
quick-growing, and succulent, and produce a heavy 
growth. It should be turned under while Requisites f^^ 
it is still in succulent condition so that decay green-manure 
may take place rapidly. Generally a green- ^^°^ 
manure crop should be followed by a tilled crop. As the 
decay generates acids, plenty of lime should be in the 
soil, either naturally or added for the purpose. 

A special kind of green-manuring is provided by the 
growing of cover-crops, which are those grown late in 
the season, assuring a covering for winter and 
being plowed under the following spring. 
They are employed especially in orchards. Rye makes 
a good cover-crop ; buckwheat is sometimes used ; some 
of the legumes provide more fertility, as crimson clover, 
cowpea, vetches, peas. It is usually best if the crop lives 
over winter and makes an early spring growth; rye, 
clover, winter or hairy vetch do this. 

93. Soiling-Crops 

Crops are sometimes grown to be fed green, being cut 
day by day for that purpose, or the animals turned into a 
certain part of the field which is set off by a por feeding 
movable fence ; or the animals may be tied. ^^ " soiling " 
This practice is employed mostly with milch cows when 
there is not sufficient fresh pasture, or when a special 
yield of milk is to be obtained. The practice is known 
as soiling, and the plants grown for the purpose are 
called soiling-crops. 

Soiling is especially valuable for dairy cows in dry 
summers. Corn or kafir makes a good soiling-crop. It is 
sown broadcast or thickly in drills, so that many soft 



158 TOPIC 10 

stalks are secured. Oats-and-peas is often used; also 
alfalfa, clover, cowpea, and others. 

94. Rotation of Crops 

This brings us to the subject of rotations. A rotation 
of crops is a regular order of cropping, one kind of crop 
following another kind. 

For example, corn may follow potatoes or spring wheat 
year after year. This would mean either that all the 
land is devoted one year to corn and the 
following year to potatoes ; or else that part 
of the farm grows corn and part potatoes. In the latter 
case both crops are raised every year, by means of an 
alternation of fields, the part that grows potatoes one 
year growing corn the next year. 

In practice, rotation and alternation usually go together, 
for a farmer does not devote his entire farm to a single 
crop. One-crop farming is very hazardous. 

The farmer determines the kind of farming in which he 
will engage. He will grow a few staple crops, perhaps 
The rotation three or four. He will plan to grow these 
fields three or four following each other in order ; 

and to have all crops every year, he will provide as many 
main fields as there are crops in the rotation. If he has 
a three-year rotation, for example (as wheat, oats, corn), 
he will need at least three fields of somewhat equal size 
so that every year one field will be in wheat, one in oats, 
one in corn. 

Aside from these rotation fields he may have other 
Perennial areas for crops of long duration, as perma- 
crops nent pasture, alfalfa, orchards. Even in these 

cases he will follow a kind of succession if he lives long 



CROPPING 159 

enough, for he will put other crops on the land, for a time 
at least, after the orchard comes out or when he plows 
up the alfalfa. There will also be fields, usually smaller, 
on which he can grow vegetables for the cannery or any 
special crop that may seem to be desirable or promises 
to be profitable for the time being. 

There are many advantages in rotating the crops. It 
provides a plan or line of action, to which the farmer 
may look forward. It enables him to in- Reasons for 
vest his capital wisely, in labor, tools, teams, rotation 
machinery, storehouses or barns, knowing about what 
results to expect year after year. He can keep live- 
stock, raising much of the feed for it. 

Rotation aids in keeping the land clean and in main- 
taining its fertility. The pattern rotation has a " cleaning 
crop" following grass or sowed grain; this is a tilled 
crop, demanding good preparation of the land and 
frequent tillage ; weeds may then be destroyed. The 
faults of one crop are corrected by another ; so that 
if one of them is "hard" on the land, the next crop may 
be ''easy." We have learned (p. 16) that farming is a life- 
work occupation ; we now know some of the reasons why. 

The rotation should always have at least one tilled or 
"hoed" crop. Usually it has one leguminous crop, as 
clover or cowpea. The grass or mown crops ^j^^ "hoed 
are sometimes spoken of as "resting crops," crop "and 
as they are supposed not to be so hard on 
the land as most of the tilled crops. Rotation keeps 
insects and plant diseases in check. Good rotations 
ought to mean clean and productive farms. 

A few examples of rotation are here given, merely as 
illustration (not for recommendation) : 



i6o 



TOPIC 10 



4-year course 

1. rutabagas, mangels, po- 

tatoes, corn, barley, 
oats, or peas 

2. fall-sown wheat, or spring- 

sown oats or barley, 
seeded to timothy and 
clover 

3. meadow 

4. meadow and pasture 
;^-year course in cotton-helt 

1. com, cowpeas between 

2. oats, with cowpeas 

3. cotton 

4-course cotton (thin land) 

1. corn and cowpeas 

2. oats or wheat and cowpeas 

3. same 

4. cotton 
2-course cotton 

1. cotton, followed by crim- 

son clover 

2. corn and cowpeas 



;^-course 

1. beans or corn 

2. wheat 

3. clover 
^-course 

I, 2. corn 

3. oats, clover and timothy 

seeded 

4. meadow 

5. pasture 



6-course 



wheat 

clover 

oats 

sugar-beets 

barley 

peas 



y-course 
I, 2. com 

3. potatoes 

4. oats and peas 

5. 6, 7. clover and timothy, 

hay and pasture 



95- 



The Breeding of Plants 



The present kinds of poultry, sheep, swine, horses, and 
cattle have been developed by careful breeding. The 
Improvement sires and dams have been selected for certain 
by breeding qualities ; and the offspring not good enough 
for parents is not allowed to breed. 

We have not practiced similar care in the breeding of 
plants, yet we now know that they can be as much im- 
proved as can animals. We may 

(i) increase the yield of any kind of plant, and 

(2) sometimes produce new and better varieties. 



CROPPING i6i 

All our domestic plants have come from wild ones. 
Sometimes the differences between the cultivated and 
the wild are so great that we scarcely recog- The wUd 
nize them as belonging to the same species, originals 
This is the case with chrysanthemum, wheat, cabbage. 
Of some plants the wild forms are yet unknown, as of 
Indian corn, common bean, sweet potato. All these 
changes and improvements have come about through a 
kind of breeding, but it has been mostly a blind effort 
extending through centuries. Now we begin to see that 
we can produce rather definite results within a compara- 
tively few years. 

The farmer should give as much attention to choice of 
seed and tubers and trees for planting as to fertilizing and 
tilling. He should know not only that the 
seed is ''true to name," but that it has a fertilizing, 
good pedigree. It should have come from *^^^^^^ 
well-grown plants that were raised from carefully selected 
seed. Any farmer can improve his product by seed- 
selection, thereby obtaining better quality, or a heavier 
yield, of oats, cotton, rice, potatoes, melons, carnations, 
and perhaps both improved quality and yield. 

The starting point of all breeding is variation. That 
is, no plant is exactly like any other plant, and we may 
breed from the one that suits us best. In a no two plants 
field or patch of beans, for example, we find ^^® ^^^® 
one plant unusually productive. We save seeds from it, 
and next year we plant them, giving the growing plant 
the best of care. At the end of the season we choose 
again from the most productive plants ; and we continue 
the process until all the offspring are uniformly more pro- 
ductive than the field from which the first plant came. 



i62 TOPIC 10 

Then we may plant our regular farm fields with the 
seeds from the productive plants. 

This process of continuously choosing the best plants 
is called selection. If left to itself under ordinary field 
. conditions, the well-bred stock may deteri- 

meant by orate, or at least fall off somewhat in its 

se ection good qualities. The poor plants, as well as 
the good ones, will propagate themselves. We must 
continue to select stock for seed. This means that the 
farmer must always be a seed-breeder, every year choosing 
from the best plants or perhaps even growing a small 
area just for seed. 

It is not enough that the farmer have ''good seed." 
The best and plumpest kernels from a bin of wheat may 
not give the best crop, nor the best single 
from the ear from a crib of corn. One should choose 

best p ant ^^^^ irom the best plant. A poor plant may 
produce a few very promising seeds or fruits, but these 
seeds are more likely to reproduce the qualities of their 
parent as a whole rather than more seeds just like 
themselves. 

Let us suppose that the farmer desires a longer-headed strain 

of wheat. He goes through his wheat field when the heads are 

getting ripe and ties a string or tag on all the plants 
An example , , , . xx .1 if 1 

that please him. He saves the seeds from each 

head or ear separately. Next spring he plants these batches 

separately, the seeds from each head making one row. At the 

end of the season he will probably find that some rows are much 

better than others. That is, some parents did not reproduce 

themselves accurately. One cannot tell in advance what plants 

will give the best offspring. From the best heads in the best 

rows, one selects again ; and so on until a good stock is obtained. 

This is the ear-to-row method of selection ; each ear or head has a 



CROPPING 163 

row to itself so that its performance may be seen. Similarly, each 
tuber of potato may be planted separately, the different pieces 
comprising a row. 

As soon as he gets a good long-headed stock, reproducing itself 
fairly uniformly, the grower may sow his, fields or offer the seed 
for sale. If he sells it, he is entitled to an extra price. 

The question of producing new kinds or varieties of 
plants is a special subject, too complex for discussion here. 
It involves not only selection but crossing; 

1 1 11 r f New kinds 

and one must then know the law of prob- 
abilities as to what result he may likely expect. One 
must follow the generations of crosses (hybrids) with 
great care and be able to judge them accurately. 

Improvement by simple selection, however, is within 
the power of every farmer ; or, if he does not care to 
make the selections himself, he should buy Good seed- 
selected seed or tubers from those who have ^*®^^ 
taken pains to breed good stock. The crop yield in 
North America could be vastly increased by the simple 
process of seed-selection. 

96. Cultural Requirements 

We may classify crops by their requirements in cultiva- 
tion. For example, we might place in one group all those 
thriving best in sandy soils and in another group those 
doing best in clay soils ; or we might group them as to 
whether they are inter-tilled or not tilled. 

Perhaps the best primary classification is on their 
climate requirements, whether they are 

(i) cool-season and frost-hardy ; 

(2) warm-season and frost-tender ; 

(3) intermediate. 



i64 , TOPIC 10 

Of the cool-season plants we may at once name wheat 
(particularly winter wheat), rye, turnips, peas, alfalfa, 
„ , all the common grasses and clovers : as warm- 

Cool-season ° ^ ' 

and warm- season, all the beans, pumpkins and squashes, 
season crops j^^giQ^g^ Indian corn, buckwheat, cotton, 
sugar-cane, sweet potato, tobacco ; as intermediate, able 
perhaps to stand light frost when starting, or at least 
not demanding hot weather at that time, oats, Irish 
potatoes, flax, mangels. 

Knowing whether the plant thrives best in the cool or 
the warm of the year, the grower has the key to its 
Hints as to culture. He will then inquire whether there 
culture 2iYe any special requirements in soil, whether 

it is deep-rooting or shallow-rooting, what method of 
tilling it requires, and what special fertilizer treatment, 
the distance the plants are to stand from each other, the 
quantity of seed required to the acre. He will also find 
out whether it has any serious diseases or insect pests. 

REVIEW 

What is a crop ? What is meant by cropping ? 
Name some of the classes of crops. 
What is a crop scheme ? 

How is one to determine what crops one shall raise ? 
What is green-manuring? What crops are grown for this pur- 
pose ? What are legumes ? 

Define cover-crops. Soihng-crops. 

Explain your idea of rotation of crops ; of alternation of fields. 

How is the kind of rotation to be determined ? 

Is the entire farm land generally used in the rotating? Explain. 

Name the advantages of rotation. 

Give examples of rotations. 

What is meant by the breeding of plants ? 



CROPPING 165 

How may plants be improved, aside from better tillage and 
fertilizing? 

How did our common cultivated plants originate ? 

Explain variation. 

What is selection ? How practiced ? 

What is meant by "cultural requirements" ? 

Classify plants as to these requirements. 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Enumerate the crops grown in your (a) county and (b) state in 
the order of their value. What is the average acre-yield of each 
crop for your county? for the United States? Consult the 
census. 

Itemize the cost of producing the three most important crops 
raised in your county. (Value or rent of land, cost of plowing, 
harrowing, planting, seed, etc.) What are the factors or items that 
determine the kind of crops raised in your section ? 

What green-manure or cover-crops are used in your neighbor- 
hood? Describe the use or state the reasons for growing such 
crops. If none are grown, explain why. 

If soiling-crops of any kind are grown on the farms of your com- 
munity, tell how they are utilized. 

Describe the crop-rotation plan followed on your own or on 
some neighbor's farm. What are the reasons for the particular 
rotation followed? 

Describe the practice followed by most of the farmers of your 
section as regards the selection of the seed they plant each year. 
What are the good and the bad points of the method followed ? 

Go into a field at harvest and note carefully the mature plants 
you find there. Notice particularly the difference in the size, 
shape, quantity, and quality of the fruit (ear of corn, head of grain, 
pods of beans, potato tubers, etc.). If possible, harvest the fruits 
of a score or fifty different plants, keeping the product of each 
plant separate. Notice the difference in the yield and quality 
next year. 

State how the farmer may improve the quality and increase the 
yield of (a) wheat, oats, or barley, (b) corn, (c) potatoes, (d) beans. 
Describe the ear-to-row method of corn breeding. 

Describe the tuber-unit method of potato improvement. 

What are the cultural requirements of the money or cash crops 
grown in your region? What are cool-season crops? Which are 
warm-season ? Which are intermediate ? 



1 66 TOPIC 10 



CLASS PROBLEM 

Each pupil should demonstrate the method of improving the 
principal field crop grown in his section. Obtain the very best 
seed obtainable, plant it in a special plat, and select and save the 
seed or tubers from the five or ten best plants and from the same 
number of the poorest plants ; plant the seed or tubers from each 
plant in separate rows the following season, and note the tendency 
or ability of the progeny of each plant to reproduce in kind. If 
this selection can be continued for several seasons, planting the 
demonstration plat with the seed from the very best and the poorest 
of the last season's selection, marked differences may be noticed. 
Even the first season the difference in vigor and looks and yields 
of the plants may be marked enough for school demonstration. 



TOPIC 11 

GRASS AND FORAGE 

Grass may be called the foundation of agriculture in 
North America, inasmuch as it constitutes the natural 
covering of the earth in cleared lands. It provides the 
basis for the rearing of live-stock ; and were it not for the 
live-stock most of the Indian corn and many other prod- 
ucts would not be grown. 

Any herbage or roots eaten by cattle, either green or 
cured, is known as forage. Examples of forage plants 
are all grasses, clovers, cowpea, alfalfa, vetch, what forage 
root-crops, and the herbage of soybean, maize, ^^ 
and the small cereal grains. Many other plants, not 
necessary to mention here, are grown for forage. 

The area of pasture is very large, for grazing is one of 
the major practices of agriculture. Grass also produces 
hay. The hay crop is not all grass, however. Much of it 
is clover, alfalfa, and other plants. 

In 1909 the hay and forage was 15 per cent of the total 
value of farm crops in the United States, to which is to 
be added the value of the seed-crop of these ^^^^^^ ^^ 
plants. In twenty states it was the leading meadows and 
crop in value. In Canada, in 191 1, the crop ^^^^"^""^^ 
of hay, clover, and alfalfa covered nearly nine milKons 
of the thirty-five millions of acres, or one-fourth of the 
total crop acreage. Meadows and pastures cover more 
than half of all the cleared farm land of the United States. 

167 



1 68 TOPIC 11 

Although grass grows everywhere, yet it produces a 
profitable return only on good land that is well prepared. 
All grass land needs careful management. He is a shrewd 
farmer who knows what his grass land needs. A good 
grass man is usually a good Kve-stock man. 

97. The Pasture 

Although grass may be called a universal vegetation 
in the United States and Canada, yet the native grasses 
The pasture in o^ the southern states and to a great extent 
particular q^ |-}^g prairies and plains are not productive 
or very useful in highly developed agriculture. It is 
in cool countries, as a rule, that dense sod forms, and that 
grasses develop their best qualities for grazing. 

Good grazing grasses may be eaten close to the ground 
and yet renew themselves and cover the earth with a 
The grazing continuous carpet. In regions in which 
crops good hay and pasture grasses do not thrive, 

other kinds of plants must be used for forage, as cow- 
pea, Japan clover, alfalfa, millets, and (as in California) 
the cereals which are mown before the grain is ripe and 
while they make good hay. The blue-grass pastures of 
Kentucky and adjoining highlands are famous. 

Pastures provide the cheapest feed. The great live- 
stock regions are those of good pasture grasses, largely 
Importance of june-grass or blue-grass, timothy, buffalo- 
pastures grass, bermuda-grass, with more or less clover. 
The pasturage must be supplemented with other feeds, 
yet it forms the basis of a live-stock industry. Most of 
the poetry and sentiment of farm life are associated with 
cattle, sheep, and horses afield. One does not think of a 
farm without pasture. 



GRASS AND FORAGE 169 

Pastures may be permanent or temporary. The per- 
manent pasturage remains year after year on the same 
ground. Sometimes the land is a hillside 
or very rocky, and is never plowed ; in other and perma- 
cases it may lie in grass five to ten years and "^^* pastures 
then be plowed up for draining, refitting, or other im- 
provement. 

Permanent pastures need constant attention, how- 
ever. The land should be strong, so that it will hold 
grass well. The fields should not be pastured Maintaining 
so close as to injure the grass, or too early in permanent 
the spring ; sheep are specially likely to graze P^^*^^®^ 
a pasture to death. If the droppings of the animals are 
not sufficient to maintain fertihty, the land may be top- 
dressed with manure and perhaps with f ertihzer ; this 
is usually necessary, particularly in certain parts of the 
field. Thin places should be reseeded, the land being 
disked or harrowed with a spike-tooth drag. Wet and 
boggy places should be drained. Troublesome weeds 
should be cut; the better the sod, however, the fewer 
will be the weeds. 

Temporary pastures are likely to be part of a rotation. 
The grass part of the rotation is then two or three years ; 
the first year hay is cut, and then the sod is ^^^ ^^^ 
pastured. Light lands are usually pastured porary 
in a rotation. Good rotation pastures com- ^^^ ^® ^^^^ 
monly produce more feed than permanent pastures, but 
they are also more expensive. 

Temporary pasturage is often provided in orchards, 
and on meadow land in late summer and fall. Some of 
the pasturage is soiling, for which corn or rape may be 
grown (p. 157). 



I70 TOPIC 11 

98. The Meadow 

Meadows are practically a necessary part of a farm. 
Probably no single crop is so universal as hay. Barns 
The meadow ^^e devoted largely to hay storage. One does 
in particular ^q^ think of a general-purpose barn without 
a mow. Hay is a good money crop, easy to keep and to 
handle ; it provides feed for live-stock ; it is one of the 
backbone crops of a rotation. 

They are of two kinds, — clear meadows and mixed 

meadows. The former are of one kind or species of 

plant, as timothy, barley, clover, alfalfa. 
Clear anu 

mixed The latter are of two or more kinds, growing 

mea ows together, as timothy and clover. 

Meadows may be permanent or temporary. The latter 
are mostly rotation meadows, even though the farm may 
^ not be laid out in a definite rotation scheme ; 

Temporary ^ ^ 

and perma- that is, they are plowed up and succeeded by 
^®^* another kind of crop. 

Permanent meadows are usually on lands not well 
adapted to rotations. Sometimes the whole property is 
The perma- devoted mostly to meadow, and the man is 
nent meadow g^id to have a ''hay farm." These meadows 
need much the same attention as permanent pastures. 
They should be kept continuously in prime productive 
condition, as much as an apple orchard or an asparagus 
bed. 

If permanent meadows begin to ''run out," — to get 
thin and weedy, — they should be plowed up, cleaned 
and refitted in corn, potatoes, or other crop, and after 
a year or two, seeded again. The seeding is usually 
made with a grain crop, mostly with wheat. 



GRASS AND FORAGE 171 

Temporary meadows are sown to crops that come 
quickly to maturity, as timothy, orchard-grass, redtop, 
and the clovers. For permanent meadows, The tempo- 
the slower-maturing kinds may be used, as ^^^ meadow 
june-grass, meadow fescue, hard fescue, meadow foxtail, 
alfalfa; these do not attain full growth under two or 
three years. 

Although meadow grass will grow under the most in- 
different conditions, yet it responds as well as any other 
crop to good care and manuring. Only good meadows, 
producing heavy yields, are profitable. 

98 fl. Requirements of the Meadow 

Meadows and pastures require strong land, particularly if they 
are to be permanent or to remain a few years. The land should 
have deep and thorough preparation with good How to make 
underdrainage, as it cannot be corrected or improved a meadow 
by subsequent tillage. It should be clean of weeds, and free from 
"bad spots." The surface tilth should be fine, to insure a ''good 
catch" in seeding. Grasses and clovers make the best hold when 
started in the cool of the year, in autumn or spring. If seeded with 
the grain, an extra attachment is provided on the grain-drill. If 
sown at other times, the grass or clover seed is broadcasted by hand 
or by small machines or implements made for the purpose. Mead- 
ows and pastures are not intertilled, but are sometimes harrowed 
in spring with a slender-toothed implement to ''liven them up," 
to encourage tillering, and to afford lodgment for manure or fer- 
tilizer. 

Timothy meadows require 10 to 15 pounds of seed to the acre; 
yield should be i to 2 tons of cured hay, although 3 and 4 tons may 
be secured. Timothy and clover together require 6 to 9 pounds 
of seed of each. 

Many meadow mixtures are advised ; some of them are as fol- 
lows (not here recommended but given only by way of illustra- 
tion) : 



172 



TOPIC 11 

For hay and pasture ; to be varied by adding meadow 
foxtail or other grass 

Pounds of 
Mixture Seed to the 

Acre 

Timothy 8 or 9 

Blue-grass (pine-grass) i 

Orchard-grass 2-3 

Alsike clover 4~5 

White clover 4-5 

For permanent pasture 

Orchard-grass 4 

Meadow fescue 4 

Tall oat-grass 3 

Timothy 2 

Meadow foxtail 5 

Alfalfa 2 

Alsike clover . . .* 2 

White clover 2 

Two year pasture 

Red clover 7 

Alsike clover = . . . 4 

Timothy 5 

Orchard-grass 5 

Rotation hay and fall pasture, for heavy land 

Timothy 11-12 

Alsike clover 4~5 

White clover 4^5 

For hay and pasture, moist heavy land 

Timothy 8 

Redtop 5 

Red clover 4 

Alsike clover 2 



GRASS AND FORAGE 



173 



99. Clovers 



Clovers are specially valuable because they supply nitro- 
gen (protein) to animals and to the land. They are legu- 
minous plants, bearing tubercles on their roots, why clover 
They provide hay, furnish pasture, improve the ^^ valuable 
land when the stubble and sod are turned under. Some- 
times they are grown spe- 
cially for green-manure, the 
entire plant being plowed 
down. They are specially 
valuable in rotations, to 
supply nitrogen ; the red 
clovers also have long tap- 
roots, that bring up food 
materials from the under 
soil. 

In the United States, 
clover is the most impor- 
tant of the forage legumes. 
Grown alone or with timo- 
thy it occupied about 22 
millions of acres in 1909; 
alfalfa occupied about 4f 
milKons. Its greatest im- 
portance is east of the 
Mississippi River. 

The true clovers are of the genus Trifolium (page 108), 
of which there are more than 200 species, mostly native 
of the north temperate zone. There are five xhe kinds of 
principal agricultural trifohums : T. pratense, ^^^^^^ 
the common red clover ; T. pratense var. perenne, mammoth 




The Red Clover 



174 TOPIC 11 

red clover ; T. hybridum, alsike clover ; T. repens, white 
clover ; T. incarnatum, crimson clover. The crimson 
clover is annual, although it lives over winter in chmates 
not very severe, if sown late in the season. The others 
are perennial, although red clover usually begins to 
fail after two or three years. Clover does not make 
permanent meadow or pasture, except white clover 
under favorable conditions; alsike thrives four or five 
years. 

Red clover is usually at its best in the second year ; 
thereafter it begins to dechne in vigor and yield. It is 
The common Usually cut twice in the season for hay. The 
clover second crop is sometimes allowed to stand for 

seed ; in this case, the plant usually does not survive to 
yield a hay crop the following season. 

99 a. Requirements for the Clovers 

Rather strong, deep, well-prepared clay loams, with plenty of 
lime, usually give the best yields of the red clovers. Wet soils 
How to grow should be avoided. The young plants do not with- 
clover stand drought well. The plant needs open sun 

and is short-lived in orchards and other shady places. Clover is 
usually sown with other crops, sometimes in late summer or fall 
in corn fields but usually with the small grains. In northern re- 
gions it is likely to be sown in spring on wheat fields. It does not 
thrive so well with oats because more shaded, and the oats are 
Hkely to take most of the moisture in summer. If fall-grown, 
the plants should attain sufficient size to withstand winter. 

About 8 pounds of seed is required to the acre. The yield should 
average about 2 tons of cured hay, although 4 tons (and in some 
regions even more) may be secured; the yield of seed is 3 to 5 
bushels to the acre. 

Alsike clover thrives in moister land than the red clover ; other- 
wise its culture is practically the same. 



GRASS AND FORAGE 



175 



100. Alfalfa 

Within the past twenty-five years, alfalfa, or lucerne, 
has come to be one of the most important crops for hay. 
It yields heavily, and its feeding value is The alfalfa 

high. It is a legume. ^^°p 
Its greatest usefulness in the 
farm plan is in the region from 
Nebraska and Kansas to CaH- 
fornia, although it is a very im- 
portant crop in the central and 
northeastern states and in parts 
of Canada. 

Alfalfa thrives specially well 
under irrigation in semi-arid cH- 
mates, and takes the place of 
clover in the irrigated regions. 
Added experience, however, finds 
it to be adapted to a wide range 
of conditions. In most parts of 
the country it is gaining in pop- 
ularity. In general, alfalfa is to 
the West what clover is to the 
East and what cowpea is to the 
South. These are the three 
major leguminous forage crops. 

Alfalfa is Medicago sativa, na- 
tive in Europe. The genus 
Medicago comprises what alfalfa 
probably 50 species, native in the Old World. ^^ 
They are closely related to the trifoliums. Several kinds 
have agricultural value, and a number of them are 




Top Shoot of Alfalfa 



176 TOPIC 11 

weeds, but only alfalfa is well known to North American 
farmers. 

The alfalfa plant is a long-lived perennial. Good stands 
of alfalfa will last a lifetime. However, it is usually 
Length of advisable to plow it up after a period of five 
^^^® to eight years, following it with a tilled crop. 

Sometimes it is a two-year factor in a rotation, although 
in the colder climates, with short seasons, it is rarely 
turned under in so brief time. 

100 a. Requirements of Alfalfa 

The soil must not be acid. The application of lime for alfalfa 
is therefore a common practice, specially on old lands. It is a 
How to grow very deep-rooted plant, and for best results the land 
alfalfa should not have a hard subsoil ; the absence of hard- 

pan subsoils in semi-arid regions is undoubtedly one reason for the 
success of the crop. The young plants do not compete success- 
fully with weeds, and therefore the land should be thoroughly 
clean. The seed-bed should be carefully prepared. Every effort 
should be made to obtain a good seeding, for a field with a poor 
stand cannot be corrected. If alfalfa or clover has not grown on 
the area for a few years, the land should be inoculated with soil 
from successful fields (sown over the field thinly) or by means of 
the commercial preparations. Well-manured land usually gives 
the best stand. Seed may be sown in spring or late summer, with 
drill or broadcast, usually on lands not in other crop ; it is a sun- 
loving plant. 

Seed required to the acre, 12 to 20 pounds. In the northern 
states, alfalfa produces two cuttings, with a yield of cured hay of 
3 to 5 tons. In the southern parts it may give five cuttings. In 
most of the alfalfa region three or four cuttings are secured, with a 
yield as high as 7 tons and even more. The crop should not be 
cut until renewal shoots have formed at the crown (surface of 
the ground), but before they are tall enough to be severed by 
the mower. 



GRASS AND FORAGE 



177 



lOI. COWPEA 

The cowpea is an annual bean-like plant now grown ex- 
tensively in the warmer humid parts of the United States as 
a green-manure, cover-crop, and for hay. The what the 
seeds are also good for human food, although cowpea is 

not greatly 
used for that 
purpose in this 
country. It is 
either bushlike 
in growth, like 
a bush bean, 
or more or less 
vinelike, al- 
though not a 
true climber. 
The plant is 
specially valu- 
able to renew 
worn or washed 
lands in the 
South, and as a 
factor in short- 
course cotton 
rotations. 
It is probably native in the warmer parts of Asia. It 
is one of the sixty or more members of the genus Vigna, 
one of the Leguminosae. There is some con- 
fusion as to its proper botanical name, but it 
is usually known as Vigna sinensis (meaning Chinese 
vigna). Its cultivation in the United States has received 
much attention within recent years. 




The Cowpea in Pod 



Its name 



178 TOPIC 11 



10 1 a. Requirements of the Cowpea 

The plant is frost-tender. It grows rapidly, covering the 
ground and smothering weeds. It does not require liming or in- 
How to grow oculation. It thrives even on light poor soils ; and it 
the cowpea will stand still in a dry time and then renew its 
growth. It does not thrive in wet soils. The hay is difficult to 
secure because the leaves fall and the plants break. To obviate 
this defect, it is often grown with millet, soybean or sorghum when 
hay is desired. Sometimes the crab grass comes up with it in suf- 
ficient abundance to aid in the curing. 

Cowpea may be sown broadcast, when i to i^ bushels of seed 
is required to the acre ; or drilled in rows to allow of horse tillage, 
when i to f bushel is sufficient. The yield of cured cowpea hay 
is 2 to 3 tons to the acre ; the yield of seed or grain is lo to 30 
bushels. 

REVIEW 

How important is grass ? 

What is forage ? Give examples of forage crops. 
What is a pasture ? Name good pasture plants. 
Why are pastures important in farming? 
Contrast permanent and temporary pastures. 
How are permanent pastures maintained ? 
How are temporary pastures handled ? 
What is a meadow ? Name good meadow plants. 
Explain permanent and temporary meadows and treatment for 
each. 

Recite the requirements for meadow-culture. 
What are the clovers? Name some of the kinds. 
Give the requirements for clover culture. 
What is alfalfa ? Why is it so important ? 
Recite the requirements for alfalfa growing. 
What is the cowpea? What is its importance? 
Repeat the requirements for cowpea-culture. 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

What are the most important grasses in your neighborhood? 
Collect and mount on cardboard a mature specimen of each 



GRASS AND FORAGE 179 

kind of grass raised on your farm. Display these mounted plants 
in the schoolroom. The best mounted specimen of each kind should 
form part of the permanent herbarium or equipment of the school. 

What native or wild grasses make the best permanent pasture 
crops in your part of the state? Which are used as temporary 
pasture crops ? To what extent, and in what months, are the pas- 
tures depended on to furnish food for farm animals in your region ? 

What was the total acreage and value of the hay crops in (a) the 
county, (b) the state, and (c) the United States, according to the 
last census? 

What are the most important hay crops in the county? To 
what extent (tonnage value) is baled hay exported or imported each 
year? 

Where is the grass seed grown that is sold to the farmers in your 
part of the state ? 

Collect and mount a mature specimen of each kind of clover 
that grows in your section, giving both the common and the 
scientific names as far as you know them. 

What part do clovers and other legumes play in the crop-rota- 
tion plans on the best farms in your neighborhood? 

Where is the clover and alfalfa seed grown that is used by the 
farmers in your community? What is the average yield of clover 
and alfalfa seed to the acre? 

Mount for display in the school exhibit a specimen of each type 
of alfalfa plant that you can obtain. 

Obtain a four-ounce sam.ple each of the grass, clover, and alfalfa 
seed exposed for sale by your seed dealers. Divide into two equal 
parts. Test one part of each sample for germination. Examine the 
other part of each sample, making note of the relative number and 
amount of plump seeds, broken seeds, and foul matter in each sample. 
Compare your results with those obtained by the seed tester. 

What insect pests or plant diseases or parasites, if any, infest 
the clover and alfalfa crops in your section ? 

To what extent is the cowpea grown in your state? What is 
its place in the crop rotation ? 

Collect and mount a mature specimen of the cowpea for the 
school collection of forage plants. 

CLASS PROBLEM 

Let each pupil grow at home a clump 2 ft. square of all the kinds 
of grasses and clovers, alfalfa, and cowpea recommended for the 
region. Seeds may be obtained of seedsmen, one packet of each. 
Or, certain scholars may grow the clovers, others the grasses, and 
so on. 



TOPIC 12 
THE SMALL GRAINS 

The cereals are the food grains of the grass family. 
For purposes of cultivation they are commonly divided 
What the into two groups, — the large kinds, which are 

cereals are usually intertilled, as maize, sorghum, and 
kafirs; and the ''small grains," not intertilled in North 
America, as wheat, rice, oats, barley, rye, the small 
grain-bearing millets. It is customary to include buck- 
wheat with the small grains, although it is not a cereal. 

Wheat and rice are the great bread-grains. Both of 
them have been cultivated from earliest times, and their 
origin is obscure. 

Rice probably provides food for more people than 

any other grain. It is the main support of the densely 

populated countries of southern and eastern 

About rice . 

Asia, and is extensively grown elsewhere. It 
is not grown so extensively in North America. Its genus 
is Oryza, of which there are about six species in the tropics. 
O. sativa (the cultivated oryza) is rice, native in tropics 
of the Old World, but running wild in parts of the western 
hemisphere. Rice is now extensively grown in many 
parts of the southern United States and in California, 
and although the crop must stand in water part of the 
time, it is nevertheless sown and harvested by machinery, 
the water being drawn off at certain periods. In Oriental 
countries the crop is planted and transplanted by hand 
in water-soaked or submerged land, and harvested by 



THE SMALL GRAINS 



i»i 



"^t^.^^ 

'y^^^:^^ 



hand, after the water is drained off. Rice grows 2 to 3 
feet high, and bears its grain in open panicles. 

In North America rice is sown broadcast or in drills ; 
50 to 80 pounds of seed is required to sow an acre ; 25 to 

40 bushels is the range of 
the usual yield, although 
more than 100 bushels 
have been secured. 

102. Wheat 

Wheat is grown for human food, 
although the grain is good feed for 
live-stock. The straw is used for 
bedding, and also as fodder. It is 
the great food-grain of cool-tem- 
perate regions. 

Of the three and one-half billions 
of bushels of wheat of all kinds 
produced in the world, 

, , r . 1 • About wheat 

about one-iourtn is 
grown in North America, one-fifth 
in Russia, and smaller quantities 
in India, Argentina, Central and 
Southern Europe, and Australia. 
In 1909 (the last census year) more 
than 42 millions of acres were de- 
voted to wheat in the United States, 
with a yield of 683 milKons of bushels (in 191 5 about one 
billion bushels were produced). About three-fifths of the 
crop is spring wheat, being grown in Nebraska, Iowa, 
Minnesota, the Dakotas, and westward. The regions of 
winter and spring wheat overlap in Iowa, Nebraska, and 




Panicle of Rice 



l82 



TOPIC 12 



other states. In 191 1, the acreage of wheat in Canada 
was more than 1 1 milhons, of which about 90 per cent was 
spring wheat; the total wheat yield in 19 10 was more 
than 132 milHons of bushels. 

Wheat belongs to Triticum, a genus of about a dozen 
species in southern Europe and Asia. The common 
wheat is T. cestivum (summer triticum), comprising both 
winter and spring wheat and all the forms of 1. 

bearded, smooth, and club (with short heads 
thicker at top) wheats. The species from 
which wheat came is not clearly identified, 
although a plant recently discovered at Mt. 
Hermon, Palestine, is possibly the true wild 
form. 

In regions of heavy and dependable snow- 
fall, winter wheat is mostly grown. It is a 
hardy race; the plants have the 
habit of spreading out or tiller- 
ing at the base when sown in autumn, so that 
they pass the winter well under the snow. 
The most injurious conditions for such wheat 
are bare ground, dryness, and • alternate 
freezing and thawing in winter and early Head or Spike 

OF Wheat 

sprmg. 

To avoid such conditions in much of the plains and 
prairie regions, only spring wheat is grown. In regions 
of very severe long winters spring wheat 
pring w ea .^ ^^^ raised. It is grown and handled in 
the same way as winter wheat, except sown in early 
spring rather than in September and October. It is 
harvested mostly in August in the mid-country rather 
than in late June or early July. It is more likely to suffer 



Winter wheat 



THE SMALL GRAINS 



^^3 



from dry weather in summer, and the yield does not 
average as high as for winter wheat. 

Wheat requires a continuous growing season from seed- 
ing to harvest of 90 to 1 20 days. 

In both winter and spring wheats are varieties with 
bearded and smooth and club-shaped heads ; but in 
this country nearly all the commercial spring wheat 
has smooth or awnless heads. 

103. Requirements for Wheat Culture 

Wheat demands a cool season for starting and making 
its ground growth. It is sown where it is to stand, 

an inch Demands of 
or two *^^ wheat crop 

deep. It needs a 
friable loamy soil 
but not very rich in 
organic matter, with 
good surface tilth 
for its roots are at 
first shallow ; later 
on, the fine roots 
may extend three or 
four feet deep, if the 
soil is loose enough. Land 
should be clean and well 
fitted. Fertilizer or clean 
manure may be used with 
wheat or with some other 
crop in a rotation of which 
wheat is a part. Weedy and foul land is prepared by 
summer fallowing, if not in a good cleaning rotation. 




Heads or Spikes of Barley 



i84 



TOPIC 12 




The plants tend to tiller or stool, — to throw up extra 
shoots or stalks from one root; some varieties tiller 

more than others; sowing 
should not be too thick. 
Winter- wheat fields are some- 
times gone over with a spike- 
tooth harrow in spring, be- 
fore the stand is so large as 
to be injured, to loosen the 
soil and to destroy germinat- 
ing weeds ; otherwise there is no tillage 
for the crop as grown in this country. 
The seed may be broadcasted and harrowed 
in; but nowadays it is mostly sown by 
machines in rows 4 to 6 inches apart. 

The quantity of seed to the acre is i J to 
2 bushels; yield in the United States about 
13 bushels to the acre for spring wheat and 15 
bushels for winter wheat, although 30 to 50 
bushels may be secured. 

104. Other Cereals 

The requirements for oats, barley, and rye are 
essentially the same as for wheat. Oats and 
barley are spring-sown crops in most parts of the country, 
Oats, barley, although oats may be sown in autumn in the 
and rye southern states ; rye is autumn-sown. Oats 

is grown for horse feed ; also for human food, mostly in 
the form of breakfast dishes. Barley has been raised 
mostly for malting; also for horse feed. Rye is grown 
for human food mostly, and the straw is much prized for 
bedding and other uses. 



Rye 



THE SMALL GRAINS 



185 



Oats: seed to sow to the acre, 2 to 3 bushels; yield, 
30 to 80 bushels. 

Barley : seed to the acre, 2 to 2| bushels ; yield, 20 to 
50 bushels. 

Rye : I to 2 bushels ; yield, 15 to 30 bushels. 



■— ~=.-C-. 






v'te Mmmm 



Field of Oats 

REVIEW 

What are cereals ? the small grains ? 

Give an account of rice. 

For what purposes is wheat grown? How extensively is it 
grown? What is the yield in the United States? 

To what genus and family does wheat belong ? 

What is winter wheat ? spring wheat ? 

Name the requirements for the growing of wheat. 

Describe the method of growing it. 

How does the culture of oats, barley, and rye differ from that 
of wheat? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Make a collection of as many different kinds and varieties of 
cereals as you can obtain. Place the grain samples in small bottles 



1 86 TOPIC 12 

or vials and label each with its common name. Mount the vials 
on a piece of heavy cardboard by means of threads or cords. If 
samples of some of the cereals cannot be obtained locally, perhaps 
you can get them by writing to a friend or to school children living 
in regions where such grains are grown. 

Give the acreage yield and varieties of wheat grown in your 
state. What percentage of the total yield of the United States is 
the yield in the state ? What percentage of the total acreage ? 

Obtain and mount on cardboard, samples of as many different 
varieties of wheat heads as you can get locally or have sent to you. 

Send to a flour manufacturer for the mounted collections of 
wheat and flour products showing the various stages in the milling 
of the wheat kernel. One of these mounts for each school or room 
will be sufficient. 

CLASS PROBLEMS 

Go to the field at harvest time and after examining carefully 
several hundred plants, select five that bear the largest and best 
heads, take to school and compare with those selected by other 
pupils. Make this selection the basis of a friendly breeding contest 
next year, each pupil planting the seeds produced by each of his 
five best plants in a separate row (p. 162). At harvest time, the 
product of each row should be kept in the straw (unthreshed and 
in separate bundles) . The honorary awards should be given for the 
greatest yield produced by the progeny of a single plant. The 
best plants, roots and heads intact, in the best row should be saved 
for exhibition purposes. 

Let the class make a study of wheat or other small grain as grown 
in the school district. Determine the acreage ; kind of soil pre- 
ferred ; place in the rotation ; how the land is fitted ; when the 
seed is sown and how much to the acre ; varieties ; important points 
in the culture ; time of harvest ; yield ; treatment for insects and 
diseases. Add any interesting facts you find. 



TOPIC 13 

THE CORN CROPS 

Maize is grown for the grain as food for animals and 

man ; also for the forage value of its herbage. It is the 

most important single crop in the United 

,..,,,, -,. What it is 

btates, measured m yields and value. It is 

a common saying that ''corn is king," in North America. 
In some of its varieties it is grown in every state, although 
little raised on the Pacific coast. 

It is the leading crop of the ''corn-belt," the mid- 
northern region Ohio to Nebraska, comprising the southern 
parts of the northern tier of states and extend- 

1 1 1 1 • 1 r 1 /-^i • Where grown 

ing south to about the latitude oi the Ohio 
River. This is the great region of corn and hogs, and 
also of fat cattle. It comprises mainly the seven states, 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas. 

The two main purposes for which maize is grown are 
for grain and for silage. In the form of silage the whole 
plant is ensilaged ; that is, it is run through siiage and 
a shredder or cutter so that stalks, leaves, *^® ^^^® 
ears and tassels are cut into small parts, and then the 
material is packed in a silo. The silage is used as a green 
or fresh winter feed, particularly for dairy cattle. The en- 
silaging of corn is a practice mostly of the dairy regions. 

We may say that maize is grown both for grain and for 

fodder. The fodder is sometimes called stover; this 

is the stalks and leaves, green or cured, with- 

, ,, stover 

out the ears. 

187 



i88 



TOPIC 13 




Germination 
OF Maize 



The annual yield of corn in the United States is two 
and one-half to three biUions of bushels, being three- 
fourths of the maize crop of the 
e grea op ^^^.j^ j^^ ^-^q northern dairy 

states and Ontario the crop is grown largely 
for its forage value, the entire plant being 
cut or shredded (as we have seen) and 
placed in the silo to provide a fresh suc- 
culent winter feed for cattle. 

The word '' corn " is properly used in litera- 
ture for any one of the bread-grains, particu- 
" Com " and larly for wheat. It means wheat 
maize [^ England. The best name 

for the plant under discussion is "maize," as the word 
means nothing else; but ''corn" is in universal use in 
North America for this plant. To distinguish from the 
Old World plant, it is customary to call it Indian corn. 
It was cultivated by the Indians. When the Bible 
speaks of corn, maize is not 
meant. 

The origin of corn is yet 
unknown. It is supposed to 
The kinds of have originated 
maize j^ Mexico, and 

some authorities think it 
may at first have been a 
hybrid of wild grass-Hke 
plants. Its botanical name 
is Zea Mays, the genus Zea 
containing no other species. 

There are many classes or groups of corn, as dent, 
flint, sugar or sweet, pop, husk or pod (in which each 




Good Yield of Maize 



INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE 



kernel is inclosed in husks). Samples of all these classes, 
and also leading named varieties of each, should be pre- 
served in insect-tight glass jars in the school museum. 

Other plants requiring much the same care as maize 
are members of the Sorghum tribe (of the genus Holcus), 
comprising common sorghum, kafir, durra, The sorghum 
and milo. The kahrs and durras are much <^^ops- ^^^' 
grown for fodder and grain in the 
semi-arid regions, as western Kansas 
to Texas. In all the sorghum crops, 
the grain is borne in the tassel, at 
the top of the plant. In maize the 
tassel bears only the staminate or 
male flowers, while the ear bears the 
pistillate flowers. Each ''silk'' in 
the ear is a long style, holding the 
pollen that drops from tassels (p. 
99). Maize and all the sorghums 
belong to the Grass family. 

In 1909 the area in the United 
States devoted to corn was more 

than q8 millions of acres. 
.^.11 r .1 The figures 

The total value of the 

crop was i billion and nearly 500 millions of dollars 
($1,439,000,000). One-fifth of all the improved land in 
the country was devoted to this one crop, and it com- 
prised more than one-fourth of the total value of all 
crops. In Canada, of the 35 millions of acres in "field 
crops," upwards of 324,000 acres were devoted to "corn 
for husking" in 191 1. 

As stated by the United States Census, " Of the 1,635,1 53 
acres in kafir corn and milo maize in 1909, over 1,000,000 




Sorghum 



1 9© 



TOPIC 13 



acres were in the two states of Texas and Oklahoma, and 
nearly 400,000 acres in Kansas. The only other con- 
siderable acreages were in New Mexico and California." 







Corn Field 

105. Requirements of Corn Culture 

Indian corn is a warm-season plant, tender even to 

light frosts throughout its Hfe. It is a sun-loving plant, 

and it requires continuous warm days and 

What the ^ -^ . 

corn crop nights for its best development. In regions 

requires ^£ ^^^^ nights, as in most parts of the northern- 

most states, 'it may produce abundant herbage for silage, 
but a heavy yield of mature grain is not to be expected. 
The growing season in the corn-belt is 130 to 150 days, 
extending to 200 days farther south. 

The root system is very fibrous and extensive, and pene- 
trates fertile friable soils to a depth of three or four feet, 
although roots have been traced deeper than this. Roots 



INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE 



191 



are also near the surface, so that shallow tillage is neces- 
sary. The soil should contain a good supply of humus ; 
it is customary to apply stable manure to corn in the 
rotation, or to let it follow a green-manure crop or sod. 
Indian corn is planted in rows, usually about 3^ feet apart, 
the kernels being dropped 4 to 10 inches in the row. 
Sometimes it is check-rowed, to allow of tillage both 







'mm^jim^Mm^mWM 



Cultivating Corn 

ways, particularly in weedy or poorly prepared lands. 
It is tilled two or more times, until midseason. 

The average yield of corn (in ears) is about 25 bushels 
to the acre, although yields of more than 200 bushels 
are recorded. One hundred bushels to the 
acre is considered to be a full yield. The 
yield of cured fodder will run 2 or 3 tons to the 
acre. About 6 to 8 quarts of shelled corn is required 
to plant an acre; for silage corn, 8 to 11 quarts; for 



Yield 



192 



TOPIC 13 







-. ^mi 



^iW 

|$:|^i; 



The Harvest of the Corn 

sowed corn sometimes as much as i bushel. Seeds are 
planted directly in the field where the crop is to grow. 

Sweet or sugar corn is mostly a garden crop, for table 
use. Plant only after the ground is thoroughly warm, 
in drills or rows about 3 feet apart, 
and the kernels 10 to 12 inches apart. 
Seed corn should be selected with 
care and stored in a dry place, as 
a loft. The ears are often sus- 
pended from beams, to protect them 
from rats and mice. 




Tying up Seed Corn 



REVIEW 

What is Indian corn? family and 
genus ? botanical name ? origin ? 
What about the use of the word " corn " ? Consult the dictionary. 
Describe the corn-belt. Wliat other products are characteristic 
of that region? 

What is the corn yield (in grain) of the United States? What 
proportion is it of the world yield ? 



INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE 



193 



For what purposes is corn grown? What is the grain? the 
stover ? 

Name the crops closely allied to corn. 

Give the essential requirements for corn culture. 

Describe the growing of a crop of corn. 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

What was the total acreage and yield of corn grown in (a) your 
county and (b) your state last year, according to the last Census 
or the report of your county agricultural agent? What is the 
average yield to the acre of (a) ear corn and (b) silage corn ? 

What variety or varieties of corn seem to do best in your section 
for (a) silage purposes and (b) shelled corn? (This information 
may be obtained from your county agricultural agent.) 

Describe the methods used and give reasons for testing seed 
corn for germination. How many corn growers in your neighbor- 
hood test their seed corn before planting? If you had your 
choice of shelled corn or ear corn for seed purposes, which would 
you choose? Why? 

Make a list of the different kinds of products obtained from the 
corn plant. 

Tell how and why the habit of growth of the roots of corn 
governs the method of cultivation. 

What are the insects and diseases? 

CLASS PROBLEMS 

Make a collection of as many different kinds (dent, flint, sweet, 
pop, and pod) and varieties of ear corn as can be obtained. Mount, 
label, and display this corn in some prominent place at school. 

In late winter or early spring months make arrangements for 
testing, by either the sand-box or the rag-doll method, at school 
all the seed corn that will be planted in the district which supports 
the school. Your county agricultural agent or local high school 
agricultural instructor will gladly assist you in getting the work 
started. 

Join, or help to organize, a corn-club in your school. Write to 
the state club leader at 3^our state college of agriculture for sug- 
gestions and help. Plan to grow as large a plat of corn as you can 
manage properly, your aim being to produce the largest crop con- 
sistent with the lowest cost of production. Practice field selection 
of seed and in other ways follow the directions that will be sent 
to you by the club leader. If your school is in a corn-producing 
country, you will want to plan for an exhibition in the autumn. 
o 



TOPIC 14 



THE POTATOES 

Two very different plants are known as potato. The 
leading potato of commerce and of cool climates is Solanum 
tuberosum^ native of the temperate Andean region of 
South America. It is one of the Nightshade family, a 
group of plants abounding in poisonous members, of 
which tobacco is one. Persons were once suspicious of 
the potato because of its relationships, as they later were 
suspicious of its near relative, the tomato. See p. 109. 

Solanum is a vast genus, containing many weedy 

plants. To it the eggplant belongs ; also the black 

nightshade and 
The solanums ^ . 

bittersweet, as 
well as the Jerusalem 
cherry of window-gardens 
and greenhouses. In the 
tomato, eggplant, and husk- 
tomato, the berry or fruit 
is highly developed and 
comprises the part for 
which the plant is culti- 
vated. In the potato, the underground stems bear great 
enlargements ; these are the tubers for which we cultivate 
the plant. The seed-balls of the potato, which correspond 
to the fruits of the tomato and eggplant and red pepper, 
are small and inedible, and they are not now often seen 

194 




Potato Tubers 



THE POTATOES 



195 



The ipomoeas 



in potato fields. The seeds from these balls produce new 
varieties of potatoes. 

The other tuber is the sweet potato. It also has 
interesting relationships, for it is a very close kin of 
the morning-glory and moonfiower. The 
common morning-glory is Ipomcea (Ipome'a) 
purpurea) ; the sweet potato is /. Batatas. (Batatas is 
one of the original forms of the word potato.) The 

sweet potato plant 
is a vine bearing 
purplish flowers like 
small morning- 
glories. These 
flowers are not often 
produced in this 
country. The sweet 
potato is probably 
native to tropical 

Sweet Potatoes . . i , . 

America, but its 
origin has not been traced. Some authorities think that 
it does not occur truly wild, but has developed in the 
course of centuries from another species. 

These two kinds of potatoes are very unlike in their 
nature, and require different treatments. 

106. Extent of the Potato Crops 

The Irish, white, or round potato (Solanum) was grown 
on more than 3^ miUion acres in 1909 in 
the United States, and nearly | million acres ^Zyivtl' 
in 191 1 in Canada. The value in the United potatoes are 
States in 1909 was $166,000,000. New York ^^°^^ 
had 10.7 per cent of the total acreage; Michigan, 10 per 




196 TOPIC 14 

cent; the third in acreage was Wisconsin, with 7.9 per 
cent. The sixteen southern states together, Delaware 
to Texas, carried only 13 per cent of the total acreage of 
the country. The Irish potato is mostly a northern crop. 
In the most southern states it is a winter product. 

The potato crop is one of the major agricultural prod- 
ucts of the world. It yields more weight of produce to the 
acre than any other of the staple food crops. 

m JO o ^Y^^ bushels of potatoes produced in the 
world annually for a recent ten-year period was upwards 
of 5 billions, of which Germany produced more than 
i^ billions, European Russia i^ billions, France ^ billion, 
and the United States something more than ^ billion. 

The sweet potato was grown on 641,000 acres in 1909 ; 
the value of the crop was $35,429,000. The sixteen 
The sweet southern states carried about 91 per cent of 
potato crop |-j^g ^otal acreage. North Carolina and 
Georgia each had about 13 per cent of the acreage, and 
Alabama more than 10 per cent. 

107. The Irish Potato 

The Irish or white potato is grown primarily for human 
food; it is also useful as feed for live-stock, and is em- 
The common ployed extensively in the manufacture of 
potato starch and other products. The tuber is the 

only part of the plant that has commercial value. 

While it is primarily a northern crop, the potato is 
grown in the southern states and Bermuda for shipping 
north early in the season. The larger part of the early 
crop is grown in the middle latitudes, and in market- 
gardens where intensive methods may be practiced. 
The main-season product is a general farm crop. These 



THE rOTATOES igy 

different forms of potato growing are distinct under- 
takings, although the requirements of the potato i)lant 
remain the same in any case. 

The Irish potato is essentially a cool-season plant, 
although frost-tender ; it is planted early in the spring, 
as soon as the ground is settled. As it is Needs of the ' 
planted deep and requires some time to come ^^^p 
up, the crop may be put in even when light frosts are 
yet expected, if the ground is warm and well drained. 
The best soil is a friable loam, with little clay or tendency 
to become sticky and hard; it should be ''mellow.'' 
The plant is propagated by cuttings of the tubers, each 
cutting or piece containing at least one good ''eye'' or 
bud. The cuttings are dropped in a furrow three or 
four inches deep, in rows usually about three feet apart ; 
the pieces lie ten or twelve inches apart in the row. 
Clean tillage is given until the tops begin to lop and 
the tubers begin to grow rapidly. At the last cultivation 
the earth may be thrown toward the row to "hill up" 
the plants. For early crop and in soils inclined to be 
cold, the hilling may be begun earlier in the season, or 
the plants may be grown on ridges. In general, level 
culture is best, with a deep well-prepared soil. The 
"seed" should be of sound perfect tubers, free of scab' 
and rot. If tubers suspected of scab are used, they 
should be treated before planting, as recommended by 
the State Experiment Station. Spraying the plants with 
bordeaux mixture is essential to combat the blight. 

From I o to 15 bushels are required to plant an acre. 
The average yield in the United States is 
somewhat less than 100 bushels to the ^'^^^ 
acre, but four to sk times this yield is securable. 



198 TOPIC 14 

108. Sweet Potato 

The sweet potato plant yields no other product than the 
large globular or elongated tubers. In northern gardens 
it is sometimes grown on ridges, in '^ early soil," for a 
home supply, but the commercial crop is grown from 
southern New Jersey southward. 

Propagation is mostly by means of ''draws" or ''slips," 
which are sprouts removed from the tubers. For this 
Sweet purpose the tubers are placed in a bed (as a 

potatoes hotbed) and covered with loose earth. The 

slips are removed as they grow and form roots. Two to 
four crops of slips may be taken from the tuber. The 
tips of the young vines also make good cuttings, and the 
late or main crop may be grown from them. 

The sweet potato is a warm-season plant. It must 
have a long season, full exposure to sun, loose warm sandy 
What the loam soil deeply prepared. It is frost-tender, 
crop requires j^ should be provided with a quick-acting 
manure or fertilizer. The crop is grown under clean 
tillage until the vines begin to cover the ground. The 
rows are usually about 3 feet apart and the plants 18 
inches asunder in the row. 

At these distances, about 9,600 plants are required to 
the acre. The yield is 100 to 200 bushels to 
the acre ; 400 bushels may be secured. 

REVIEW 

What are the two kinds of potatoes? Are they closely related? 

What is the difference between the two kinds ? 

Are there differences in foliage? 

How extensively is the Irish potato grown ? the sweet potato ? 



THE POTATOES 199 

For what purposes is the Irish potato raised ? 
Explain the requirements for the best cultivation of both classes 
of potatoes. 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Which of the potato plants (Irish and sweet) does best in your 
section? What is the average yield to the acre of each in your 
state ? What is the average total acreage grown in the state ? 

Describe the cultural methods practiced by the best potato 
growers in your region. 

What varieties of potatoes do best in your soil and chmate? 
Which are the ''early" kinds and which are the "late" varieties? 

Describe the method practiced by the farmers of your neigh- 
borhood in selecting and treating seed potatoes. 

Send to the Crops Department of your college of agriculture for 
a bulletin or circular describing the "tuber-unit" and "mass- 
selection" methods of improving the yield of the potato crop. 
Does any potato grower whom you know follow either method ? 

What insect pests or plant diseases affect the potato crop? 
Describe the control or remedial measures for each pest or disease. 

Why is the potato an important food in war times ? 

What form of potato tuber is most prized by your neighbors? 
Bring different kinds to school for comparison. 

If you have opportunity, compare flowers of potato, tomato, 
eggplant, red pepper, and note the resemblance. 

CLASS OR HOME PROBLEM 

Each pupil should join, or help to organize, a potato growing 
club in the school or in the community. Write to the club leader 
at your state college of agriculture for information and help in 
starting such a club. As potatoes of one kind or another are grown 
in every part of the country, a potato club ought to be successful. 



TOPIC 15 



ROOT CROPS 



In North American agriculture the term "root crops" 
is commonly used for such plants as produce fleshy parts 
underground, excluding the potatoes. These crops are 
grown for stock-feeding, and also in vegetable gardens 
for human food. The varieties most prized for live- 
stock are usually the coarse heavy- 
yielding kinds. 

While the sugar-beet is really a 
root crop, it is usually considered 
by itself because grown 
for a very special pur- 
pose. The cultivation of it is a 
large industry in Europe and 
North America. Once sugar was 
a luxury, used only by the few. 
Now it has come to be a common 
necessity. It is derived from 
sugar-cane and sugar-beets. But 
these crops cannot be treated in 
this book. ^^^^^^ 



Sugar-beet 




109. The Kinds of Root Crops 

The beet tribe : mangels (sometimes written mangel- 
wurzel and mangold) for live-stock ; garden beets (called 
What they are ^eet-root in England) for home use. These 
and the sugar-beet are forms of a single 
species, Beta vulgaris , native in Europe ; it is one of the 



ROOT CROPS 



20I 




Turnip 



Pigweed family. The genus Beta comprises perhaps a 
half dozen species, of the Eastern Hemisphere. 

Turnip {Brassica Rapa), in many varieties, mostly 
with flattish or not elongated usually white-fleshed 
tubers ; grown for stock feed and 
for human food. 

Rutabaga {Brassica campestris) , 
oi many kinds, the tubers usually 
longer than broad and yellow- 
fleshed. They are sometimes 
called Swedish turnips or 
" Swedes." The turnip and ruta- 
baga are closely related to the 
mustards, being members of the 
Cruciferae or Mustard family. 
They are of the genus Brassica, 
which comprises the cabbage, cauliflower, rape, and kohl- 
rabi. The genus has about loo species in the Old 
World. 

Carrot, long and short, the flesh yellow or whitish; 
the late large kinds grown for live-stock, others for house- 
hold use. All forms are cf one species, Daucus Carota, 
of the Parsnip family (Umbelliferae). In its wild form it 
is a bad weed in grass lands, often known as Queen Anne's 

Lace. Daucus com- 
prises 60 or more 
species, two or three 
of which are native 
in North America. 
It is mostly an Old 
World genus. 

Parsnip, of few 
varieties, used both 
in the home and the stall; all kinds require the full 
season. It is one of the half dozen species of Pastinaca 
(P. sativa), of the Umbelliferae; it is run wild as a weed 
in many places. 




Parsnip 



202 



TOPIC 15 



Why root 
crops are 
grown 




Other root crops are radish and salsify (vegetable 
oyster), grown for household use. The horse-radish is 
usually classed with the root crops, but it is not a tuber 
as the others are ; and its culture is of a different kind. 
Kohl-rabi is strictly not one of the root 
crops, as the tuber is part of the stem 
above ground ; but as its culture and uses 
are similar, it is often classed with them. 

no. The Use of Roots 

Roots provide excellent winter feed for 
dairy cattle and other live-stock because 

of their succulence. They are 

juicy and fresh. They also 

have good feeding-value in 
nutrients, mostly in the form of carbohy- kohl-rabi 
drates, although the protein content is as 
high as in many grains. The dry-matter is small, how- 
ever, in proportion to the total weight, which means that 
much water is handled in these crops. A thousand 
pounds of mangels cr turnips yield about loo pounds of 
dry-matter, the remainder being water. 

In northern regions, where winters are long and silage 
corn is uncertain, the roots contribute an important 
part in feeding, stimulating the flow of milk and the 
well-being of the stock. Even in other regions they are 
good supplemental feeds, if the climate and the farm- 
scheme are such as to allow of their cultivation. 

For home use, the roots provide an attractive variety. 
Every day in the year the table may be supplied with one 
For human kind or another. Late in the spring the 
^ood radishes are ready; these are followed by 

summer radishes, by early beets and turnips, by carrots ; 



ROOT CROPS 



203 



later by rutabagas, by fall and winter radishes, fall and 
winter carrots and beets, parsnips, salsify, all of which 
may be stored till radishes come again ; parsnips and 
salsify are sometimes left in the ground all winter. 

Roots should be winter-stored in a temperature near 
freezing, and the ventilation of the cellar or store room 
should be good. The air should be moist, 
else they will shrivel. Furnace-heated cel- 
lars are not adapted to such storage. For home use, 
roots may be kept in barrels of moist sand ; broken and 
bruised tubers should not be stored. 

III. Requirements for Root Crops 

While the root crops are of many kinds, they agree in 
being cool-season plants and requiring a deeply prepared 
friable soil. Omitting horse-radish, they what these 
are propagated by seeds usually sown in drills ^^°p^ require 
where the plants are to stand. Most of them are frost- 
hardy. Some of them do not require a full season, as the 
common radishes, early beets, and carrots. Rutabagas 
may be sown in late June to July i in the North, and 
turnips as late as July 25. Salsify and parsnips require 
the entire season. Winter carrots and beets need a long 
season of growth to produce large well-matured roots. 

In a great many parts of Canada, says a Canadian 
pubhcation (F. S. Browne, Special Circ. 9, Dominion 
Expl. Farms), '' silage corn can be profitably grown, 
and, in such sections it is, at present, recognized as the 
most economical crop to grow as forage for stock. In 
spite of this, however, field roots, on account of their 
peculiar value in adding palatability to the ration, are 
still grown in even the best silage corn sections of the 



204 TOPIC 15 

country. Further, the root crop is a safe venture in 
many parts of the Dominion where the chmatic conditions 
are such as to render the results with corn just a Httle 
too uncertain. 

" Field roots are a hoed crop and should preferably 
follow hay or pasture. The seed should be sown in rows 
25 to 30 inches apart. On land free from weeds, that is 
Culture in inchned to dry out, or in districts where rain- 
Canada f^w jg light, seeding may be done on the fiat. 
Under ordinary conditions, however, it is advisable to 
sow in shallow drills which have been run up, with the 
drill plow, and flattened to about one-third their 
original height with the roller. Hand seeders are 
usually the most satisfactory, and one with a light roller 
attached, so that the soil is pressed firmly around the 
seed, should be used. Mangels, sow as soon as the ground 
can be conveniently worked in the spring. Turnips 
may be sown comparatively late ; two to three weeks after 
mangels. " Carrots, sow about the same time as mangels, 
or a little later. With good seed, of strong vitality, the 
following quantities may be recommended to the acre : — 
Mangels, 7 to 8 pounds ; turnips, 2 to 3 pounds ; carrots, 
3 to 4 pounds. '^ 

REVIEW 

What are root crops ? 

Briefly describe the beet tribe ; turnips and rutabagas ; carrot ; 
parsnip. 

Explain the uses of roots. Where are they mostly grown? 

Give your estimate of the importance of roots in the vegetable 
garden. 

Describe how they are stored. 

What are the general requirements for root crop cultivation? 



ROOT CROPS 205 

Have you ever grown any of the roots in your own garden? 
Describe the methods you employed. 

Describe the differences between turnips, rutabagas, carrots, 
parsnips, radishes, beets. Are there differences in leaves as well 
as in roots ? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Which of the root crops grow well in your soil and climate ? 

Which are used principally as human food? As stock food? 

What is the food value of the root crops grown as stock food in 
your section ? What place do these roots occupy in the balanced 
ration? (i. e. tell of the relative weight of the roots to the hay 
and grain). 

At your harvest festival or exhibition in your school, see that the 
different kinds of roots are well represented. 



TOPIC 16 



COTTON 

Cotton is grown principally for the hair on its seeds ; 
from this fiber all the kinds of cotton cloth are made. Oil is 
extracted from the seeds, and the cake remaining from this 
process is used for cattle feed and other purposes. . Cotton 
is the most important 
fiber-plant in the world. 

The cotton region of 
North America ex- 
The" cotton- tends from 
belt" North Caro- 

lina (and southern Vir- 
ginia) to Texas. The 
so-called ' ' cotton-belt ' ' 
comprises the ten states 
North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Georgia, Flor- 
ida, Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana, Arkan- 
sas, Oklahoma, Texas ; 
and the less elevated part 
of Tennessee should be included. This great area is the 
most important cotton region in the world. 

112. What Cotton Is 

All forms of cotton are of the genus Gossypium, one of 
the Mallow or Hollyhock family (Malvaceae). In this 

206 




Cotton Plant 



COTTON 



207 



family is the hollyhock, marsh mallow, and okra. There 
are thirty to forty species of gossypium, herbs and shrubs, 
native to many parts of the world. The The species 
cotton grown in North America is of two o^ cotton 
species, the upland cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (meaning 
hirsute or hairy gossypium) which is an herb ; and the 

sea-island cotton (G. har- 
badense, Barbadoes) which 
is more inclined to be a 
woody plant. These two 
species are probably na- 
tive to the western hemi- 
sphere. In some of its 
forms cotton has been cul- 
tivated from ancient times. 
The hair or fiber on the 
cotton seed is called the 

lint. All the Lint and 

lint on a seed ^*^p^® 
taken together is known 
P' as the staple. Although 
the hairs are short, it is 

The Staple of Cotton, i, Sea-island g^gy ^q gpi^ them together 
cotton. 2, long-staple upland. 3, com- . , 

mon upland. All somewhat over one- bccaUSC there IS a natural 

half natural size. ^^jg^ j^ them. The lint 

is very slender, as many as 1200 or more of them being 
required to make an inch wide when laid side by side. 
The cotton seeds are contained in a pod or boll. The 
boll bursts at maturity, exposing the white 
cotton. Close-jointed and stocky plants, not 
excessively overgrown, usually produce the greatest num- 
ber of bolls. 




2o8 TOPIC 16 

113. Kinds of Cotton 

The cotton grower in the United States may recognize 
at least three principal types or groups of cotton : 
The kinds of (i) The upland, common or short-staple, 
staple jn which the lint is about i in. long. 

(2) Long-staple upland, in which the lint is i|- to i^ 
inches long. 

(3) Sea-island cotton (so called because it is raised 
mostly on the seacoast islands, or near the coast), with 
still longer lint. 

While the common cotton brings less price to the pound 
than the other types, yet the yield is so much greater 
that it is more profitable. The length of the staple may 
be increased by careful plant-breeding. There are 
many varieties of the common cotton, as also of the other 
types. 

114. Value of Cotton 

In 1909 more than 32 millions of acres were planted to 
cotton in the United States. The value of the crop 
Extent of the was more than 
cotton crop ^qq millions of 

dollars, which was much 
greater than the value of 
all the hard and soft coal 
mined. It was more than 
ten times the estimated 
value of the wool pro- 
duced in that year. The ^ ^"^^^ °^ ^^""^'""^ 
value of cotton seed was estimated at more than 120 
millions of dollars, which is much greater than the value 
of the tobacco crop. 




COTTON 209 

American cotton and cotton goods are shipped to all 
parts of the world. Cotton cloth clothes princes and 
paupers, and millions of merchants, farmers, laborers, 
and professional men. Cotton and wool are the greatest 
sources of clothing, although silk and linen are much 
used. Cotton is the great money crop of the southern 
United States. It is one of the leading agricultural 
products of the world, and the condition of the c:op in 
any year has great influence on the markets. 

115. Requirements of the Cotton Plant 

Cotton is a warm-country crop, being injured by tem- 
peratures even not as low as freezing. Although the 
cottons are really perennial, they are grown what the 
as annuals, and the crop must be made ^^^P requires 
before frost touches the plants. Soil must be such as 
to yield its fertility quickly, to maintain a continuous 
rapid growth. The land is fertilized with the crop ; 
but a good short-course rotation, with cowpeas or other 
legume, is essential to best results. It is a shallow- 
rooted plant. Seeds are planted where the crop is to 
grow ; rows about 4 feet apart, plants 8 to 24 inches in the 
row. The crop is tilled frequently, clean cultivation 
being essential. 

About one bushel of seed is required to plant an acre. 
The average yield is about one-third of a bale to the acre 
and a good yield is i bale (or 500 pounds). 
Two bales is a heavy yield. 

116. How Cotton is Grown 

Cotton is a clean-culture crop. Therefore the humus tends to 
disappear rapidly from land continuously cropped. Rotations 



210 TOPIC 16 

are specially important. The use of fertilizers is also advisable, 
as the material gives the plants a start, hastens maturity, and 
increases yields. The land should be thoroughly prepared, so 
that the soil will be well pulverized and the seed-bed in prime 
condition. Seeding is sometimes performed by hand, but now 
nearly always by means of drills. As well-bred seed is expensive, 
care should be taken not to waste it by planting too heavily. 
The cotton-planting season begins in the North (North Carolina) 
about the middle of April or the first of May, in Florida and 
Louisiana about the first of April, and in parts of Texas some- 
what earlier. It is important that seeding be delayed till the 
weather is warm and settled. 

Tillage may be at first with a light harrow or weeder with teeth 
slanting backward, and run over the surface before the plants are up 
and perhaps again after they are up and well established but yet 
too small to be broken. The usual tillage is by the use of a sweep- 
plow or cultivator between the rows, at intervals frequent enough 
to keep down the weeds and maintain a good soil-mulch. After 
the first row-tillage, the plants are thinned by chopping out with 
the hoe. One or two plants are left in a place or *'hill," at distances 
of about a foot and a half apart (12-24 inches). 

The cotton is picked by hand, and this work is one of the heavy 
items of expense in the growing of the crop. The lint is removed 
by the process of ginning. A gin is a mill or machine through which 
the cotton is run, to separate the fiber and the seed. Gins are 
established all through the cotton-belt to serve the planters of the 
region. 

Many troubles overtake the cotton-planter, of which one of the 
worst is the Mexican boll-weevil. The larva eats in the young 
boll or bud. The remedy is in the nature of methods for circum- 
venting the insect. This consists in getting the crop off early, 
in cleaning up the plantation to destroy hibernating places, burn- 
ing the old stalks and fall plowing, in keeping the premises clean 
of breeding-places throughout the season, and by wide spacing of 
the plants. 

REVIEW 

What is cotton ? What does the plant yield ? 
Where is the cotton-belt ? 

To what family and genus does the cotton belong ? 
Where is the cotton fiber borne ? What do you understand by 
the lint and the staple? by the boll? 
Name the types or groups of cotton. 



COTTON 



211 



What is the importance of the cotton crop ? 
Discuss the requirements of the cotton plant. 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

From the Census determine which states produce the most 
cotton. 

If you Hve in a cotton-growing state, look up and report the 
yield by counties. 

Whether you live in a cotton region or not, obtain bolls of cotton 
and examine the fiber. Try to roll the lint together in the fingers. 
Perhaps you can correspond with schools in the cotton-belt, ex- 
changing some of your products for theirs. 

If in a cotton region, name the varieties mostly grown. Compare 
the length of staple in the different kinds. 

What are the favorite cotton soils? 

What machinery is employed in your region in the growing of 
cotton ? 

Do the cotton growers in your country practice rotation ? Ex- 
plain. 

Describe a cotton gin. 

Where is the cotton of your region marketed? 



CLASS PROBLEM 

Obtain for the school museum the market grades of cotton. 
There are six or seven recognized grades. As cotton is sold by 
samples from the bales, an examination of standard grades should 
be a profitable class exercise. 

Collect, also, the different by-products of cotton, as seed, oil, 
oil-cake, meal, hulls, and the materials used in cookery. Some of 
the kinds of cotton cloth may be collected. 

If in a cotton region, join or organize a cotton club. 



TOPIC 17 

TIMBER 

Timber is a crop as much as wheat or sugar-cane. It 
grows from the land, and it responds to management 
and good care. 

As there may be good or poor stand of corn or millet, 
so may there be a good or poor stand of timber. There 
are weed trees, of no value to the owner, that interfere 
with the growth of other trees. There may be open 
spaces, yielding nothing. 

A forest is a company of trees. These trees grow 
together, producing conditions of shade, moisture and 
What is a soil texture found nowhere else. Many 
forest? trees are required to make a good woodlot, 

comprising ten acres or more for best results. The 
small farm forest is usually called a woodlot. 

A grove is not a forest or a woodlot. Planting shade 
trees does not constitute forestry, nor the growing of trees 
Grove. along avenues or city streets or in parks. A 

Woodlot forest is a world by itself, large or small, with 

its own climate, its undergrowth, its springs and creeks, 
its bird life and insect inhabitants. 

117. Importance of Forests 

The farmer's interest in the woodlot is of two kinds : as 
a source of wood, posts, and timber; as an attractive 



TIMBER 213 

part of the property. Every general farm in the timber 
region is supposed to have its ''woods." ^j^y ^^ 
These woods are characteristic of the land- should have 
scape in the Northeastern States and Canada. °^^^ ^ 

In New York, the forest products of farms in 1909 were 
valued at more than 10 millions of dollars, which was 
more than the value of butter-fat sold. In Ohio, the 
value of these products was about 5! mil- jj^p^rtance of 
lions, which was more than twice the value farm forests 
of mules on farms. In Pennsylvania, the 
farm forest products were worth nearly 8 million dollars, 
which was more than the poultry raised, as reported, in 
1909. The total value of forest products of farms in the 
United States in 1909 was more than 195 millions of 
dollars, being 3.6 per cent of the value of all crops. This 
is much more than the value of potatoes in the same year. 

The kinds of farm forest products are indicated by the 
Census enumeration: "all firewood, fencing material, 
logs, railroad ties, telegraph and telephone poles, materials 
for barrels, bark, naval stores," and others. 

A good woodlot adds to the selling value of a farm. It 
usually also contributes to the home value. 

In timber states the farm forests are usually natural 
woods maintained continuously and yielding their har- 
vests year by year. In the prairie states ^^^Q^Q forests 
and in the plains, the woodlots are usually maybe 
planted about or near the buildings, where 
they serve as protections against the sun and wind. 
They may be planted, however, on rough or relatively 
waste grounds, utiHzing such places to advantage. It 
does not pay, as a rule, to raise forests on land that is 
well adapted to the staple farm crops. 



214 TOPIC 17 

ii8. Public Values of Forests 

Thus far we have been speaking of the farm forest or 

woodlot. There are also vast tracts of pubUc forests, 

specially in the West and on the Pacific slope. 

Public forests ^, ,, .,,,., , 

Ihey are reservations, which means that 

they are reserved or kept by government for forest and 
are not open to settlement. Great areas of forests are 
also owned by states, as in the Adirondacks of New York. 
About one-fourth of the timber land in the United States 
is owned by state and nation. Cities sometimes own 
forests, to control water supplies. 

Forests exercise great influence on the life of the nation, 
aside from the yield of timber. They usually occupy 
Influence of mountains and remote lands from which 
forests streams derive much of their water. The 

forest cover prevents floods on the rivers by holding back 
the rainfall and snowfall and allowing the water to find 
its way to the streams gradually. Rain falling on a roof 
runs off at once ; on bare steep land, only a small part 
seeps into the earth, the remainder running off rapidly 
and injuring the land by washing. On grass-bound slopes, 
the run-off does less damage. In a forest, the rain- 
fall is broken by the trees, held by roots and leaf-mold, 
and it finds its way slowly into the creeks. Springs 
are protected by forests. When the woods are removed, 
many of the springs dry up. The uniformity of flow 
from great forested areas has much influence on irriga- 
tion. Forests also check the force of drying and destruc- 
tive winds. The forest is a great natural recreation 
ground, providing an attractive access to the out-of- 
doors and to wild life. 



TIMBER 215 

119. The Woodlot 

The farm forest must be thought of as a regular crop, 
yielding wood, as we think of a meadow yielding hay or 
an orchard yielding apples. The crop is The woodlot 
harvested, either by cutting part or all of the ^^ particular 
woods completely or, as is usual, by taking out the crowded 
or the mature trees from time to time as needed. 

As trees will grow without the aid of man, so we are 
hkely to think that the woodlot needs no care. So does 
grass grow without aid, and yet we do not obtain a good 
lawn or a profitable meadow without attention. 

Part of the care of the woodland is to protect it against 
fire, over-grazing, theft, careless cutting. Another part 
is to remove all worthless trees, as one re- Protecting the 
moves weeds from a cornfield. One is to see woodlands 
that the ''stand" is thrifty, — that the trees are close 
enough together to cover the land and to make tall, 
straight boles with high crowns or tops. Broken, decayed, 
deformed, and poor trees are to be removed. Open or 
vacant spaces should be replanted. Care is to be taken 
to plant the right species of trees. 

The trees should grow rapidly. The rapidity of 
growth depends on the species: a beech or red cedar 
grows slowly ; a white pine, locust, or basswood grows 
rapidly. The rate of growth depends on the soil ; also 
on the amount of fight, for in overcrowded woodlands 
the struggle for existence is too severe for rapid growth. 

The woodlot is commonly a remnant of the original 
forest, allowed to remain on the rear of the ^^^ ^^^ 
propert}^ or on land not adapted to other woodlot is 
uses. When a woodland is newly planted, 
it should be placed on land of least value agriculturally, 



2i6 TOPIC 17 

although its location may be extended to break the force 
of prevailing winds, to guard springs and streams, and 
perhaps to intercept undesirable views and to improve 
the landscape. A good road should enter it, which 
may be used in winter. A sugar-bush may be part of a 
farm-forest area; and a picnic ground may often be 
reserved in some part of it. The woodlot provides good 
winter work, and a means of holding labor throughout 
the year. 

1 20. Managing the Woodlot 

The cutting of the timber is for two purposes: to 
improve the forest; to harvest the crop. Improve- 
ment-cutting consists in removing undesirable kinds 
and also thirming so that the remaining trees will thrive 
better. 

The trees should stand so thick that they will naturally 
drop the lower branches, when these branches are very 
Growing the small, SO that the tree will make a long clean 
woodlot trunk. The openings in the forest should not 

be so great as to encourage grass and bushes. The moist, 
cool, forest atmosphere is to be retained. 

New forests are started by seeds sown naturally or arti- 
ficially, by planting young trees, and by allowing sprouts 
Trees us. to grow from stumps. Some trees (as 

sprouts chestnut and redwood) sprout freely from 

stumps and soon renew themselves. The sprouts should 
be thinned to two or three from each root. Stumps of 
young trees usually produce the best sprouts. Sprout 
trees generally do not grow to so large size as seedling 
trees, but they make useful timber for posts, rails, poles, 
ties, and firewood. 



TIMBER 217 

Seedlings may be allowed to spring up from seeds that 
drop in the forest or are sown there ; but it is often the 
better practice to plant young trees. Some- 
times seeds are sown in little prepared seed- 
beds, called ''seed spots," where the trees are to grow. 
Some farmers keep a nursery of timber trees, but usually 
it is cheaper to buy from nurserymen who make this 
kind of tree-growing a specialty. 

It is customary to plant young trees about 6 feet apart 

each way, requiring about 1200 trees to the acre. On 

poor land and with slow-growing species, as 

r . 1 r . > • The planting 

some 01 the evergreens, 5 leet apart is a 
good distance, so that the trees will shade the ground 
sooner and smother weeds ; this distance requires about 
1 700 trees to the acre. It is advisable to plant on plowed 
and well-harrowed land, if possible. Tillage may be 
continued until the trees master the grass and weeds, and 
also to lessen the danger of fire. 

Planting is usually a spring operation. Trees two or 
three years old are used, and with strong tools the plant- 
ing may be performed rapidly. On unplowed land, the 
earth usually is opened with a mattock, the tree carefully 
thrust in, and the hole closed with a stamp of the foot. 
The trees should be kept moist and fresh, and the tops 
of broad-leaved trees pruned as if they were orchard 
stock. The leaders of evergreens should not be cut. 

REVIEW 

What is a forest ? A woodlot ? 

How is the farmer interested in forests? What materials does 
he obtain from them ? 

How important are the farm forests? 



2i8 TOPIC 17 

Where do forests occur on the farm ? 

What are forest reservations? What interest has the public 
in forests ? 

How do forests influence floods? soil erosion? 

How must the woodlot be protected? What is meant by the 
^' stand"? 

How is the crop from the woodlot harvested ? 

How are new woodlots started? 

At what distance are the young trees planted ? When and how 
are they planted? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

What is the total area covered by forests in your state? In 
your county? The annual value of forest products in each? 

What are the principal kinds of forest trees in your region? 
Describe the products that are obtained from the forests. 

How many farms in your neighborhood have woodlots? If 
there are any planted woodlots, describe how they are planted and 
the kinds of trees. 

Which is better, to have the great forest areas owned and 
managed by the state and the nation or by private individuals? 

How many kinds of forest trees do you know ? Which ones are 
the "hard woods"? Which the conifers? Can you tell the 
different kinds of trees by the wood ? 

Send to the forestry department of your state college of agri- 
culture or university for free publications on forestry and the man- 
agement of the farm woodlot. Read these bulletins carefully as 
a part of this lesson on timber. What recoramendations or sug- 
gestions are given in these bulletins on the planting and manage- 
ment of the farm woodlot? . 

CLASS PROBLEM 

The school cabinet or museum should contain pressed and 
mounted specimens of the leaves and flowers of the common forest 
trees ; also samples of bark and wood. Here is a good home prob- 
lem in which the pupils may cooperate. 

What kinds of woods are used in the construction of your 
school-house? Where do you think they came from? 



TOPIC 18 



HORTICULTURAL CROPS 

That great part of agriculture having to do with the 
growing of fruits, garden vegetables, flowers, and orna- 
mental plants, is known as horticulture. It ^,^^^ .^ 
gives little attention to grass as a funda- meant by 

, , , . J. Jt ' horticulture 

mental crop, or to gram, or to the rearmg 
of live-stock. All the range of gardening, including the 

making of parks and home 
grounds, comes within the 
definition of horticulture, 
as does also most of the 
growing of nursery stock. 
Much of the horticul- 
ture is very intensive. 
The greatest 
product is ob- 
tained from a small area 
of land. The most inten- 
sive agriculture is the art 
of the florist, who grows 
many of his plants in pots. So carefully must his soil 
be prepared that he mixes it to suit and then sifts it to 
remove all lumps and stones and sticks. He puts clin- 
kers or bits of broken materials in the bottom to provide 
drainage ; and the pot also has a hole in the bottom. 

219 




Intensive 



The Large Plant in the Small Pot 



220 TOPIC 18 

He often applies liquid manure or other fertilizer. He 
is keen to see the first sign of disease or insect injury. 
The plant In this pot he may grow a plant several feet 
in a pot tall, so tall that the pot will hardly hold it 

up. If it were possible to apply these methods to the 
fields, the yield of farms would be enormously increased. 

121. The Divisions of Horticulture 

The raising of fruits is known as fruit-growing or 
pomology. In this division of the subject is included 
The many the growing of such crops as apple, pear, 
fruits quince; plum, apricot, peach, almond, 

cherry; orange, lemon, grapefruit; fig, mulberry, 
olive ; nuts of many kinds ; grape, gooseberry, and 
currant ; raspberry and blackberry ; strawberry ; and 
many others. 

The raising of vegetables is vegetable-gardening or* 
olericulture. Here is included the growing of cabbages 
Vegetable- and cauliflower; turnip and rutabaga; let- 
gardenmg ^uce ; melons ; pumpkin and squash ; sweet 
corn ; pea and bean ; onion ; sweet herbs ; and others. 

The raising of flowers is called floriculture. It has to 

do with roses, carnations, chrysanthemums, sweet peas, 

violets and pansies, hollyhocks, primroses, 

Floriculture , ^ , r / ■, -, . 

and great numbers oi other plants both out 
of doors and in the greenhouse. 

When the area is relatively small and the cultivation 
is intensive, the work is known as gardening. 
In gardens many kinds of fruits and vege-: 
tables and flowers may be grown. 

The garden should contain not only plants for human 
food, but those designed to improve the looks of the 



HORTICULTURAL CROPS 



221 



place. To improve the appearance, the plants must be 
properly arranged. A room is not attractive when the 
furniture is scattered, even though every 

^ . ' ir c^ The garden 

piece of furniture is good m itseit. bo a 
yard or property is not attractive when plants are scat- 
tered or are placed without 
reference to walks, boundaries, 
buildings, and to each other. 
A flower-bed in the center of 
the home lawn does not im- 
prove the place, even though it 
is a good flower-bed. 

We may divide horticulture 
again into the growing of prod- 
uce for home use and for the 
market. The marketing of 
such produce has now come to 
be a very large enterprise. 
Even the amount of supplies 
raised on home gardens for sale ^ 

^ Color and Form. - 

is larger than we know. o'clock. 




The four- 



12 2. The Home Garden 

Every home-maker should aim to have a garden. It 
should be as much a part of a home as is a garage or a 
lawn. 

A good garden provides work and plans for all members 
of the family. The children can do garden work. It in- 
troduces them to many interesting kinds of Qardenineas 
plants, as one might be introduced to interest- part of the 
ing people. One learns how to grow plants, °™ 
how to manage soils, fertilizers, tools, insects, and diseases. 



222 



TOPIC 18 




Hotbeds 



The garden should also provide vegetables and many 
of the fruits in their season. Persons who buy only 
from the stores do not know how different are the prod- 
ucts taken directly from the ground or the plant, fully 

mature, and never 
having withered. 
It is a great sat- 
isfaction to get 
one's daily sup- 
plies from one's 
own ground. 

Particularly 
should every 
farmstead com- 
prise a garden. 
Much of the daily 
living, in good va- 
riety, can be obtained from it. At least one member of 
the household should be a gardener. 

123. The Public-Service Garden 

Public properties should look well. This means not 
Gardening for Only that the buildings and inclosures should 
others j^g j^g^^ ^^^ [^ good repair, but also that the 

grounds should be attractive. 

School-grounds have no right to be shabby, full of 
weeds, and without arrangement. Church yards, ceme- 
teries, roadsides, creamery grounds, all should show 
evidences of good care, as if somebody were interested 
in them. 

In cities and towns, vacant lots should be kept clean 
of weeds, and devoted to useful and interesting vegeta- 



A Yard in Which to Start Things. 
and frames. 



HORTICULTURAL CROPS 223 

tion. Particularly should all public land be looked after. 
On many of these lands school-gardens could ^^^^.^ ^^^^^^ 
be grown by those needing them. 

All these properties come within the care of the gar- 
dener. Perhaps vegetables and garden flowers may not 
be grown on them, but at least the lawn surface may be 
good and the planting of shrubbery and trees and hardy 
perennial herbs may show care and skill. The grounds 
should not be filled with planting. For the most part 
the central area should be kept open, and the shrubs 
placed along fences or other boundaries, and perhaps 
against foundations. 

Many school properties are large enough for a school- 
garden. This is a place in which pupils grow plants as 
part of their school work. It is laid out in school- 
regular small plots, so that the scholars may gardens 
be assigned to a place in the garden just as one is given 
a seat in school. Usually it is best to grow both vege- 
tables and flowers in these plots. The work should 
follow a regular plan. 

When there is no space on the school premises, gardens 
may be made at the homes of the pupils, and reports given 
to the teacher. This is one of the best home problems. 

124. Fruit-Growing 
For most fruits somewhat high areas on the farm are 
best, as such places are likely to have good drainage of 
both water and frosty air. The land should Pomology or 
be well and deeply fitted before the trees or fruit-growing 
bushes are set. It is impossible to fit the land so well 
after they are planted ; and most fruits occupy the land 
for many years. 



224 



TOPIC 18 




The Farm Garden at One Side 



Usually early spring planting of fruit trees is pre- 
ferred, particularly in cold and dry climates. The trees 
should be purchased in fall, if possible, when one may 
have the choice of stock. If not planted at that time, 
the trees should be heeled-in till spring. 

The trees should 
have at least half 
their original top 
growth cut off 
when planted; 
sometimes more 
than this is re- 
moved. All bro- 
ken roots are cut 
back to fresh sur- 
faces. 

The holes in which the trees are planted should be 
larger than the spread of the roots. See that the earth 
Makin the ^^ pulverized in the bottom. The tree should 
fruit pianta- be Set about as deep as it stood in the nursery. 
^^^ Spread out the roots, finger the soft earth 

among them, shake the tree up and down to settle the 
earth into all the spaces ; then press the earth firmly 
about the tree with the foot. 

Every year fruit trees should be pruned. The opera- 
tion consists in removing crowding and unnecessary 
branches, and all those injured or diseased. 
One of the most important parts of the prun- 
ing is when the trees are set or within the first year or 
two. At this time the main framework of the future top 
is determined. Leave only very few main branches, and 
see that they are not so placed as to form crotches. Three 



Pruning 



HORTICULTURAL CROPS 225 

or four main branches are sufficient. Pruning is usually 
performed in winter and early spring. Do not leave stubs, 
and take care that the wounds are clean and smooth. 

Before bearing trees can be pruned intelligently, one 
must know the fruit-buds. These buds usually differ 
from the leaf-buds in being thicker and less 

1 r r r^ The fruit-bud 

pomted, and often more fuzzy. On some 
kinds of fruits, as apple and pear, they are borne for the 
most part on spurs, which are very short branches, usually 
only an inch or two or three long. On peaches they are 
borne mostly on either side of the leaf-bud on the last 
year's growth. Of course, if one removes or injures the 
fruit-buds, the number of fruits will probably be reduced. 

Orchards are usually tilled until midsummer or later, 
at which time most of the growth has ceased. A clean 
surface with good soil-mulch is generally to care of 
be advised. Crops should not be grown in orchards 
bearing orchards. In late summer or in autumn a cover- 
crop may be sown (p. 157) to be plowed under the 
following spring. 

The fruit-grower must know the insects and diseases 
likely to attack his plantations. He must be prepared 
for them with spraying machines and insecticides and 
fungicides. The applications must be made promptly 
and thoroughly. 

Fruit is a choice product, usually of great beauty. 
Every care should therefore be taken in the harvesting, 
grading, and marketing. Even the best of fruit not 
graded and carelessly packed will fail to bring a satis- 
factory price. 

The usual distances apart for fruit plants How far 
are about as follows : ^^^^ 



226 


TOPIC 18 




Apple .... 


. 40X40 ft. requiring 


27 plants to the acre 


Pear .... 


20 X 20 ft. requiring 


108 plants to the acre 


Quince .... 


. 16X16 ft. requiring 


170 plants to the acre 


Peach .... 


20X20 ft. requiring 


108 plants to the acre 


Plum .... 


20 X 20 ft. requiring 


108 plants to the acre 


Apricot . . . 


20 X 20 ft. requiring 


108 plants to the acre 


Cherry (sour) 


20 X 20 ft. requiring 


108 plants to the acre 


Cherry (sweet) . 


30 x30 ft. requiring 


48 plants to the acre 


Grape .... 


6X8 ft. requiring 


907 plants to the acre 


Currant . . . 


4X6 ft. requiring 


1 81 5 plants to the acre 


Blackberry . . 


4X7 ft. requiring 


1556 plants to the acre 


Raspberry . , 


. • 3 X6 ft. requiring 


2420 plants to the acre 


Strawberry . . 


1X3 ft. requiring ] 


[4520 plants to the acre 



Vegetables 



125. Vegetable-Growing 
The best of tillage and fertilizing is required for the 
growing of vegetables. The crop must be heavy, and a 
good part of it also must be early. 

There is a regular season for wheat and alfalfa and 
apples ; but vegetables may be had earlier by choosing 
light "quick" soil, by fertilizing with quickly 
available materials, and by starting the plants 
early in the house, greenhouse, or hotbed. There are no 
farm crops in which the skill of the operator counts more. 
The choice of land and site is therefore very important. 
The place should be "early," which means well exposed 
to the sun, holding no superfluous water, mellow and easy 
to work, fertile. Inasmuch as many of the vegetables 
are attacked by soil-borne diseases, it is well to move 
the garden to a new area every few years. 

Much care should be given to the seed, to be sure 
c fth ^"^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ grow, (2) that it is true to 
vegetable- name, (3) that it has been well selected or 
bred. The germinating power one can test 



garden 



HORTICULTURAL CROPS 22) 

for oneself ; but for the rest one must rely on the seed- 
merchant or the seed-grower. 

As with fruits, so must vegetables be grown with good 
knowledge of insects and diseases and with ample supply 
of spraying materials. The State experiment station or 
college, or county agent, will aid with information. 

The planting- table on pages 228 and 229 will be useful. While 
the dates are for Pennsylvania, yet the comparative times are about 
the same anywhere. This table is by M. S. Mc- pianting- 
Dowell, and published by the Pennsylvania State table 
College of Agriculture. 

126. Flower- Growing 

The growing of flowers for market is now a very large 
industry. The Thirteenth Census reports that in 1909 
the value of "flowers and plants" was nearly 35 millions 
of dollars ; yet this great value was produced on only 
about 18,000 acres of land. 

Great ranges of greenhouses, some of them so large that 
the land in them may be plowed by horses, are now erected 
for the growing of plants in winter, either 
flowers or vegetables, or both. Thousands 
of other houses are small, and the most intensive methods 
are practiced. Therefore the Census says that the acreage 
statistics "have comparatively little significance." 

For home use flowers are grown for two purposes : 
(i) to raise a crop for gathering ; (2) to adorn the premises. 

To obtain a good crop of flowers the soil should be 
good, well prepared, and fertilized. The plants should 
be in rows so that they can be tilled. Materials should 
be ready for spraying. It is as necessary to give these 
plants the proper conditions for growth as it is for corn 
or sugar-beets. 



228 



TOPIC 18 







LONGEVITy 




Plants 


Vegetable 


Seed Required 


OF Seed. 
Years 


Rows Apart 


Apart in 
Rows 


Asparagus 


I yr. old roots 


3-5 


36 in. 


15-18 in. 


Beans (snap) 


I pint — loo ft. 


2-3 


15-24 in. 


2- 4 in. 


Beans (pole) 


^ pint — loo ft. 


2-3 


36 in. 


1 2- 3 ft. 


Beans (bush lima) 


I pint — loo ft. 


2 


20-30 in. 


3- 6 in. 


Beans (pole lima) 


I pint — 150 ft. 


2 


30-36 in. 


1 2- 3 ft. 


Beets 


I oz. — 100 ft. 


4-6 


12-18 in. 


3- 4 jn. 


Cabbage (early) 


I oz. — 5000 plants 


4-5 


20-28 in. 


15-18 in. 


Cabbage (late) 


I oz. — 300 ft. 


4-5 


24-32 in. 


18-24 in. 


Carrot 


I oz. — 400 ft. 


2-3 


12-18 in. 


2- 3 in. 


Cauliflower 


I oz. — 5000 plants 


4-5 


24-30 in. 


18-24 in. 


Celery 


I oz. — 10,000 plants 


3-5 


20-24 in. 


4- 6 in. 


Chicory 


I oz. — 300 ft. 


5-6 


12-18 in. 


3- 4 in. 


Corn (sweet) 


I pt. — 300 hills 


2 


30-36 in. 


1 24-30 in. 


Cucumber 


I oz. — 50 hills 


5-10 


4- 5 ft. 


1 2- 4 ft. 


Eggplant 


I oz. — 2000 plants 


3-5 


24 in. 


16-24 in. 


Endive 


^ oz. — 100 ft. 


3-5 


14-18 in. 


8-10 in. 


Horseradish 


Root cuttings 




30 in. 


12-15 in. 


Kale 


I oz. — 300 ft. 


4-5 


15-24 in. 


6- 8 in. 


Kohlrabi 


I oz. — 300 ft. 


4-5 


15-24 in. 


6- 8 in. 


Leek 


I oz. — 150 ft. 


I 


12-18 in. 


3- 6 in. 


Lettuce 


I oz. — 400 ft. 


3-5 


12-15 in. 


8-10 in. 


Muskmelon 


I oz. — 50 hills 


5-10 


4- 5 ft. 


1 4- 5 in. 


Onions (green) 


I qt. sets — 40 ft. 




12-18 in. 


I in. 


Onions (late) 


I oz. seed — 100 ft. 


I 


12-18 in. 


I in. 


Parsley 


I oz. — 200 ft. 


2-3 


12-18 in. 


4- 6 in. 


Parsnip 


I oz. — 200 ft. 


I 


12-18 in. 


3- 4 in. 


Peas 


I qt. — 100 ft. 


2-3 


16-30 ii 


h in. 


Peppers 


I oz. — 1500 plants 


2-3 


18-24 in. 


> 12-15 in. 


Radish 


I oz. — 100 ft. 


3-4 


6-14 in. 


I- 2 in. 


Rhubarb 


Roots 




30 in. 


24-30 in. 


Rutabaga 


I oz. — 200 ft. 


4-5 


15-20 in. 


4- 5 in. 


Salsify 


I oz. — 100 ft. 


2-3 


12-18 in. 


2- 3 in. 


Spinach 


I oz. — 100 ft. 


2-3 


12-15 in. 


4- 6 in. 


Spinach (N. Zeal'd) 


I oz. — 50 plants 




30-36 in. 


12-18 in. 


Squash (summer) 


I oz. — 40 hills 


4-8 


3- 4 ft. 


1 3- 4 ft. 


Squash (winter) 


I oz. — 20 hills 


4-8 


8-10 ft. 


1 8-10 ft. 


Swiss chard 


I oz. — 100 ft. 


4-6 


15-18 in. 


5- 6 in. 


Tomato 


I oz. — 3-4000 plants 


4-5 


2 30-36 in. 


18-24 in. 


Turnip 


I oz. — 200 ft. 


4-5 


15-18 in. 


3- 4 in. 



^ Planted in hills. 



Trained to stakes. 



Very hardy : not injured by hard freezing. Hardy : not injured by frosts. 
Tender : killed by frosts. Very tender : injured by cool weather. 



HORTICULTURAL CROPS 



229 



Depth 








OF 

Plant- 


Hardiness 


Date of Planting 


Time of 
Maturity 


ing. 
Inches 








8-12 


Very hardy 


April 


3-4 years 


I- 2 


Tender 


May 10- July 25 


40- 65 days 


I- 2 


Tender 


May 1 5- June 15 


50- 75 days 


I- 2 


Very tender 


May 20- June 10 


60-75 days 


I- 2 


Very tender 


May 20- June i 


70-100 days 


i-i 


Hardy 


April 1 5- July 10 


40- 70 days 


hh 


Hardy 


3 February i-March 15 


70-120 days 


1 
2 


Hardy 


* May i-June i 


90-130 days 


hh 


Hardy 


April 1 5- July 10 


55- 90 days 


h-^ 


Hardy 


^May 15 


90-130 days 


o-i 


Not hardy — young 


^ March i ; * Late, May i 


130-180 days 


i 


Hardy 


June 1-15 


120-130 days 


I- 2 


Tender 


May i-July i 


70-100 days 


i-i 


Tender 


May 20- June i 


60- 80 days 


^i 


Very tender 


^ ^ March 15 


100-150 days 


1 

4 


Hardy 


April 15, or July 25 


45- 90 days 




Very hardy 


April 15-May 20 


180 days 


^ 


Hardy 


April 15-August I 


50- 75 days 


^ 


Hardy 


April 15 and August i 


60- 75 days 


^ 


Hardy 


^ April 15 


130-180 days 


i 


Hardy 


April 15 and August 1 


45-100 days 


l-I 


Very tender 


May 20 


90-120 days 




Hardy 


April 15 


SO- 40 days 


1 


Hardy 


April 15 


90-100 days 


1 
4 


Hardy 


April 15 


60- 90 days 


i-4 


Very hardy 


April 15 


120-180 days 


I- 2 


"^ rdy 


April 15-May 20 


50- 80 days 


l-i 


Very tender 


•^6 March 15 


100-150 days 


i 


Hardy 


April 15-June I 


22- 40 days 




Very hardy 


April. 


I year 


1 
2 


Hardy 


July I 


100-120 days 


I 


Very hardy 


April 15 


140-150 days 


1 
2 


Hardy 


April 15-May 15 and Aug. i-io 


40- 60 days 


I 


Half tender 


April 15 


60- 80 days 


I 


Tender 


May 20 


60- 80 days 


I 


Tender 


May 20 


90-110 days 


h- I 


Hardy 


April 15 


50- 60 days 


i 


Tender 


^ March i-April i 


100-160 days 


h 


Hardy 


April 15 and August 1-15 


60- 90 days 



Transplanted to permanent place : ^ In hotbed or greenhouse. "* July i ; 
^ July 15;*^ June t . 

In central and southern Pennsylvania there is little danger of frost after 
May 20. 



230 TOPIC 18 

The flower-garden, therefore, should be placed where 
flowers will thrive best and yield the fairest crop. The 
Making the plants should be grown, even for home use, 
flower-garden seriously and in good quantity, so that they 
may be cut freely. The flower-garden should be at one 
side or in the rear of the residence, where long rows or 
ample space can be had. It may well be combined with 
the vegetable-garden. 

For decoration of the premises the flowers are to stand 
without much harvesting. Only such kinds should be 
grown as will make a good appearance most of the season 
and not cause the place to look ragged and weedy. Rela- 
tively few of the annual flowers are adapted to this pur- 
pose. One should not expect to secure the flowers for 
table, bouquets, and friends from these plantings, but 
rather from the regular flower-garden. 

REVIEW 

Explain what you understand by horticulture. 

How does it contrast with other kmds of agriculture? 

Into what parts or subjects is horticulture divided? Name 
crops in each of the divisions. 

What is gardening ? Why are home gardens important ? 

What do you understand by gardens for public service ? 

What is a school-garden? Its purpose? 

What can you say about fruit-growing, as to soil and site, when 
to plant? 

How should a tree be planted ? Pruned ? 

What are fruit-beds ? 

What is the usual course of tillage in orchards ? 

What can you say about insects and diseases? 

How many apple trees are required to plant an acre? peach 
trees ? 

Discuss soils and locations for vegetable-gardening. 




> 



HORTICULTURAL CROPS 231 

What about the importance of good seed ? 
State the distance apart and seed required for 100 ft. of row of 
cabbage, beet, pea, onion, lettuce. 

How important is commercial floriculture ? 

For what purposes are flowers grown on the home premises? 

Discuss the requirements of a good flower-garden. 



THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Determine the relative importance of horticulture and general 
agriculture in your community. 

How many farms have good gardens ? 

What are the crops grown in these gardens? 

What are the chief difficulties in the growing of them, as to 
insects and other troubles ? 

Why are not more gardens made on the farms? 

How extensively are gardens made in the villages or suburbs 
with which you are acquainted ? 

Who make all these gardens, the women or the men? How 
much do children take part ? 

Have you, yourself, ever made a garden? 

Do you know a school-garden ? How successful is it ? Describe. 

What can you say about the care and planting of the public 
or semi-public premises in your township ? 

Are fruits grown to any extent in your state? What kind? 
Where? 

What are the leading difficulties that fruit-growers experience 

in raising the crop? 

When is the pruning performed ? 

What attention is given to the grading and packing? 

Can you name good varieties of the leading fruits ? 

Is market-gardening an industry in your region? What kinds? 

Are hotbeds or glass houses used to any extent ? 

Where are the markets? How are the products prepared for 
market ? . • 

What do you observe about the growing of flowers m your 
neighborhood ? 

CLASS PROBLEMS 

Join a garden club or organize one. Ask the state club leader 
(at the college of agriculture) for instructions. 



232 TOPIC 18 

GARDEN CONTESTS 

(By Extension Department, University of Idaho. Estes P. Taylor) 

There are two contests in the Garden Chib Work. Contest A 
requires a square rod in the back yard, and is intended for flowers 
and a variety of vegetables. Contest B calls for ^^ acre or more, 
and if desired only one vegetable, such as beans or onions, may be 
grown, instead of several kinds. A seed crop can be raised, the 
produce can be used or sold fresh, or it may be canned. Choose 
the crop that you believe will be most profitable, and select the con- 
test best adapted to your ground and conditions. 

Contest A (Garden and Back Yard) 

The back yard (not less than a square rod) should be cleaned 
up and planted to flowers and vegetables. It must be kept clean 
and beautiful. Attractive flowers and a well-kept garden are the 
things desired. At least four kinds of vegetables must be grown. 

This contest invites the growing of that host of tender, crisp, 
nutritious vegetables so necessary to the table. Combined with the 
kitchen garden, the boys and girls are encouraged in the planting of 
flowers. 

Contest B (Home Garden and Marketing) 

In Contest B a larger tract of land is required. This garden 
shall be -jq acre or more, which provides a tract for the boys and 
girls where such money-making crops as pop corn, sweet corn 
(fresh, canned, or seed), tomatoes (fresh or canned), onions, peas 
(fresh, canned, or seed), beans (fresh, canned, or seed), melons, 
cucumbers, beets, carrots, peppers, parsnips, and other vegetables 
may be grown. 



TOPIC 19 

THE ANIMALS — BREEDING 

Farm animals play an important part in supplying 
the needs of man. The most noticeable aids are in 
providing labor, food, clothing, and in maintaining the 
fertility of the land. 

To the horse belongs much of the credit for our progress. 

From time unreckoned, his flesh provided our early 

ancestors with food, and his hide with cloth- 

The horse 

ing and shelter. He has borne us m war, and 
helped to win our liberties. He has carried us messages 
of victory and sorrow. He has provided us with enter- 
tainment at the race, in sport, and at the tournament. 
And he has plowed our land, sown our grain, and harvested 
our crops. 

Meat, milk, and eggs, the product of cattle, sheep, 
swine, and poultry, provide us with approximately one- 
half our food. The average person in the cattle and 
United States eats about i8o pounds of other animals 
meat a year. The importance of the dairy cow increases 
as population grows. No other farm animal can produce 
human food so cheaply, and milk is practically indis- 
pensable as an article of human diet, particularly for 
infants and children. As the economic position of the 
dairy cow advances, cheese and butter will replace meat, 
at least in part. 

233 



234 TOPIC 19 

From the sheep's back comes the fiber that provides 
woolen cloth, and from the cow's hide comes the leather 
The daily that supplies foot-wear and many other 
clothing articles. Let the pupil consider the clothes 

and articles he wears or carries on any day. Even 
though they are cotton clothes let him trace the origin 
of buttons, notebooks, combs, shoes, and many other 
things. We would not know how to live without ani- 
mals and their products. 

127. The Importance of Better Animals 

However excellent any invention may be, the inventor 
or the user wants to improve it. When the florist pro- 
duces the best crop of roses he has ever seen, he im- 
mediately plans to grow a better one. It is the saving 
quality in the human race that it wants to do better, to 
make progress. 

While some horses are fast enough, some styhsh enough, 
and some large enough, but few, if any, possess these 
Improvement characteristics in the proper proportion, 
of animals While some cows give sufficient milk, and 
others give it sufficiently rich in fat, but few, possibly 
none, possess these attributes in the relation to secure the 
greatest efficienfcy or to meet the desires of the dairyman. 

As with the main cultivated plants, so with the lead- 
ing domestic animals, the forms are so modified that it 
The wild is difficult to connect them with the original 

originals species from which they have descended. 

This modification is the result of a blind kind of breeding 
on the part of man through long centuries. We are now 
able, however, to breed animals with much accuracy and 
to secure many of the results we seek. 



THE ANIMALS — BREEDING 235 

While there are many factors in the improvement of 
farm animals, the experience of successful breeders leads 
us to suppose that environment, selection, and heredity 
are the most important. It is by environment that the 
breeder controls development ; by selection that he 
controls the efficiency ; and by heredity that he advances 
the purity of the animals. 

128. The Environment 

The conditions in which the animal or organism lives, 
into which it comes when it is born, are known as the 
environment. It is the sum of temperature 
and climate, the range, the feed, the care. What "the 
the competition with other animals. We ^g^^ 
speak of environments favorable and un- 
favorable. With farm animals the environment is largely 
under the control of the breeder and consists, in the 
main, (i) of care and management; (2) of training and 
developing. These two phases of the environment we 
may now discuss further. 

(i) Care and management are very important. To 
insure improvement, the animal must be well fed. This 
is especially true of young animals. The in- care of the 
dividual retarded in youth never reaches that animal 
degree of perfection it otherwise would have attained. 
The growing age is the period of infancy and youth. 

That the age of infancy is the age of growth is well 
illustrated in the rapid gain in the first month. The 
colt and calf increase their body weight by Age and 
100 per cent within this period ; the second growth 
month by 40 per cent ; the third month by 25 per cent ; 
the fourth month by 18 per cent ; the fifth by 14 per cent. 



236 TOPIC 19 

The lamb increases its body weight by 175 per cent the 
first month; 75 per cent the second; 35 per cent the 
third; 15 per cent the fourth. The pig increases from 
say 2^ pounds to 12 pounds the first month, or 380 per 
cent over birth weight ; the second month by 1 20 per 
cent ; the third month by 85 per cent ; the fourth by 65 
per cent ; the fifth by 55 per cent. 

At six months of age, well-managed sheep and swine 
have attained about one-half the normal weight. At 
one year of age, the horse and cow are about one-half 
grown. Sheep usually reach maturity at less than two 
years of age, while horses and cattle continue to grow 
and develop until about five years old. 

The portion or allowance the animal is fed is called 

the ration. To supply the nutrients needed by the 

young animal calls for a ration rich in pro- 
The ration . , . , ,^, . . 

tern and mmeral matter. Thus, a ration m- 

cluding wheat bran and linseed-oil meal gives very good 
results with all classes of young animals. Since growth 
consists mainly of increase in bone and muscle with but 
little added fat, those foods favoring fat formation should 
be used but sparingly, if good breeding-stock is desired. 

Proper shelter necessarily differs with the several 
classes of farm animals as well as with the climate. Thus 
Housing the the dairy cow requires warm stabling, which 
animal j^g^y "[^^ ^ detriment to beef animals. Like- 

wise the long winters of New England necessitate better 
quarters than are required in the southern states. What- 
ever the conditions, the shelter should be such as to keep 
the animal in comfort. Exposure to the hot sun, as well 
as to cold rains and storms, is especially harmful to all 
classes of farm animals. 



THE ANIMALS — BREEDING 237 

(2) Training and development may now be considered. 
While the greatest improvement cannot be reached 
without suitable food and shelter, yet training and de- 
veloping may be even more important in promoting the 
efficiency of farm animals as breeding-stock. 

No matter how pure the heritage, greatest usefulness 
cannot be attained without proper artificial training. 
This is well illustrated in training trotters Educating the 
and developing heifers. From birth the ^^"'^^ 
colts are fed regularly to the limit of their appetite, to 
keep them strong. A small track is provided on which 
they are exercised as soon as they can handle themselves 
to advantage. This work is continued until old enough 
to put in harness, when they are hitched and the daily 
training continued. This continuous work serves to 
develop speed, style, and action. 

The young heifer that is to be retained for breeding 
is given proper feed from birth that she may be well 
grown. She is also so managed as to freshen Training to 
at an early age, as the giving of milk is a give milk 
kind of habit and the earlier in life she becomes com- 
mitted to it the better producer she will make. Once 
giving milk, she is kept in flow as long as possible to 
develop a persistent milking quaUty. 

129. Selection 

Not all farm animals are endowed with the same 
capabilities for improvement, even under suitable en- 
vironment. Here selection comes into play, jj^proving 
as all animals that fail to develop to the animals by 
standard are eliminated. The good ones are 
retained as parents. Thus does selection operate in two 



238 TOPIC 19 

directions, — to eliminate the unfit, to discover and 
perpetuate the fit. 

The purpose of selection is 

(i) to modify offspring to suit our purpose ; 

(2) to prevent, so far as possible, the production of 

undesirable individuals ; and 

(3) to encourage the production of those that meet 

the demands. 

Breeding animals should be considered from two points 
of view in respect to selection, — (i) their individual 
Merit and merit and (2) their performance. These 
performance phases of Selection we may now con- 
sider separately. 

(i) Individual merit means that the particular animal 
should possess the qualities we desire. Animals selected 
What is meant ^^^ breeding should be good representatives 
by individual of the class, breed, and type to which they 
°^^"* belong. This means that to be a successful 

breeder one must be a good judge of animals. Not only 
should the animals themselves be carefully inspected, 
but their parents and offspring, if available, should also 
be critically studied. Especially is this true of the 
offspring, as they indicate the breeding capacity and 
give an idea of what to expect further from the given 
parents. 

The animals should be bred at an early age, so that we 
may learn their breeding capacity as soon as possible. 
If they should prove to be undesirable individuals, we 
are able to discard them early and thus save need- 
less expense. They should be mated with animals of 
known merit. 

(2) By performance we mean what the animal has 



THE ANIMALS — BREEDING 239 

accomplished. As a basis for estimating the breeding 
powers of an animal, nothing compares with -r^ .. 
an accurate record of just what the animal by perform- 
has yielded as a breeder and producer. 

In considering such a record, however, it is necessary 
to have a knowledge of the conditions under which the 
record was made. Thus an animal with a moderate 
record made under adverse conditions may be as valuable 
as one with a good record made under the most favorable 
conditions. Unless all the possibilities w^ithin the in- 
dividual have been properly developed, intelligent selec- 
tion is not possible. Without this care, inferior animals 
may be chosen for breeding and superior individuals may 
be discarded. 

130. Heredity 

The tendency of offspring to resemble parents is known 
as heredity. In common usage we have the expression 
''like begets like," although no animal is what is meant 
exactly like its parents ; it would be a physi- ^y heredity 
cal impossibility to be like both parents. It may be said 
briefly that environment controls what the animal has, 
training what it does, and heredity what it is. Heredity 
is said to denote the "blood." 

Not alone from the parents does the offspring in- 
herit its characteristics, but also from the grandparents 
and even more remote ancestors. Accord- influence of 
ing to Galton's law of ancestral heredity, grandparents 
the tw^o parents contribute between them one-half 
the heritage, the four grandparents one-fourth, the 
eight great-grandparents between them one-eighth, and 
so on. 



240 TOPIC 19 

A character reappearing in the new individual, but not 
known to the parents, is often spoken of as reversion or 
Reversion or atavism, depending on the remoteness of the 
dating-back ancestor contributing it. Thus, if a near 
ancestor possessed the character, the appearance of the 
character is spoken of as atavism, whereas if the an- 
cestor was farther back, the case is generally known as 
reversion. 

A good example of atavism is the occasional appear- 
ance of a red and white Holstein-Friesian calf from black 
and white parents ; of reversion, the appearance of 
stripes or bars on the shoulders of the colt, a character 
possessed by the ancestors of the horse. 

The capability of the individual to reproduce itself 
depends largely on the purity of ancestors. If they 
T ^ . have been good for several generations, it is 

Importance of ° ^ ° ' 

good ances- reasonably certain that the offspring will be 
^^^ good ; likewise if the ancestors have been 

poor for several generations, it is reasonably certain that 
the offspring will be poor. 

131. Prepotency 

By prepotency we mean strong power in any animal 
to impress its character on the offspring. Thus we say 
What is meant that the animal family, breed, or type is 
by prepotency prepotent if it transmits its special char- 
acteristics with much certainty. 

This power is of much practical importance to the 
breeder. He naturally likes to breed from animals or 
families that have the reputation of implanting their 
own good qualities en their progeny. 



THE ANIMALS — BREEDING 241 

132. Variation 

While offspring tend to resemble their parents, yet 
there is ever-present difference. They vary or differ 
from other animals of the same kind and from their 
parents. We have found that no two plants are alike. 

We always reckon on variability, — the fact that any 
new animal will have peculiarities of its own. It is at 
once the hope and despair of the breeder, 
who seeks to hold fast to what he has gained animli^s are 
and at the same time to strive for advance- ^^^^® 
ment. The variations are the starting-points of new 
features, although they may be for the worse as well 
as for the better. 

The breeder tries not to breed from animals that have 
undesirable qualities. To make best use of variation 
the breeder must be skilled in judging and know at once 
what to retain and what to eliminate. 

133. Reasons for Variation 

The exact cause of variation is little understood, al- 
though experience teaches that certain practices can be 
relied on to give results. Of the factors How differ- 
more or less under our control may be men- ^^^^^ arise 
tioned the environment (as the shelter and food supply), 
and general management. The management and care 
given his animals by the stock-grower have results beyond 
the mere welfare of the individual animal. 

Another means of producing variation is by crossing ; 
thus the mule, the product of a cross between 
the donkey and the mare, is unlike either pr'o'^duc'? ^'^ 
parent. While there is no way of controlling ^^ff^^e^ces 



242 TOPIC 19 

the product of such a cross, in some respects we can antici- 
pate characters. The crossing of classes, breeds, and types 
of animals is considered very objectionable and is not 
practiced by leading breeders, although good results 
may follow the crossing of families within a breed. 

134. Pedigree 

As the capacity of the individual to reproduce itself 
depends largely on the purity of its ancestors, breeders 
What is meant long ago established books of record in which 
by pedigree ^]^gy ^i^ke a brief history of the animals. 
Such a record is called a pedigree, and the animal so 
recorded is a pedigreed or a pure-bred animal. An 
animal without known or recorded pedigree is a 
grade. 

Thus the pedigree provides us with a general guarantee 
of the purity of the animal, and the likelihood that the 
main qualities and features will be perpetuated. 

The book in which this record is kept is called a herd- 
book in the case of cattle, sheep, and swine, and a stud- 
book in the case of horses. 

The pedigree comprises the name of the animal ; the 

number, for convenience in tracing ; date of birth ; 

usually the color and markings ; name and 

number of the father or sire, and mother or 

dam ; name and address of both the breeder and owner. 

Since most pedigrees, as recorded, show but one generation, 
they do not provide us with all the desired information. To get 
Example of a this information in brief form, we trace out the com- 
pedigree plete pedigree of the particular animal from all the 

records. Following is the most common form of writing a 
pedigree: 



THE ANIMALS — BREEDING 



243 



Lord Netherland De Kol, 22187 (Holstein bull) 

Pietertje 2d's Koni- 
Netherland De Kol's 
Perfection, 11 713 



Lord Netherland De 

Kol, 22187 
Born Dec. 12, 1894 
Bred and owned by 

E. S. Brill 



gen, 10625 
Netherland De Kol, 
10605 
Susie De Kol f De Kol 2d's Nether- 

33^^^ land, 11 584 

Daisy De Kol 
[ 20201 

This illustrates all of Lord Netherland De Kol's ancestors for 
two generations. In practice this is extended to seven and even 
ten generations, thus providing detailed knowledge for guidance. 

Breed associations are organizations to keep the herd and stud- 
books, and to manage the business of those interested in the breed. 
The membership of these associations consists 
largely of the persons who take part in the de- ^^^^"^°®^^ 
velopment of a particular breed. These associations are considered 
the official organs of the breeds and have exerted strong influence 
in the general improvement of the several breeds of farm animals. 
Each of the more important breed associations has a paid secretary 
who looks after its affairs. At present the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture recognizes nineteen registry associations for 
horses, two for jacks and jennets, sixteen for cattle, nineteen for 
sheep, two for goats, and sixteen for swine. 

135. Standards or Performance 

While the pedigree gives assurance as to purity of 
breeding, it is silent regarding the perform- 
ance. It does not tell us what the animal 
has accomplished. 

For many years records have been kept of the speed 
of trotting and pacing horses, in Wallace's Year-Book. 
More recently a system of testing the milk Advanced 
and butter-fat of dairy cov^s has been inaugu- register 
rated. The results are recorded in the advanced register. 



Registry 



244 



TOPIC 19 



The advanced register may now be considered. Be- 
fore animals can be admitted to the advanced registry, 
they must prove their worth by fulfilHng certain require- 
ments in an actual test. 



The requirement for the major dairy breeds is the yearly pro- 
duction of 250.5 pounds of butter-fat for the two-year-old heifer. 
Redstrv ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ animal is over two years old at the 

requirements beginning of her year's test, the amount of butter- 
for dairy cattle f^t she must produce in a year is fixed by adding o.i 
(one-tenth) of one pound to the 250.5. This ratio applies until 
the cow is five years old and the requirement amounts to 360 
pounds a year, after which there is no addition. The cow that 
meets this requirement is eligible to the advanced registry. The 
bulls are admitted on the performance of their daughters. When 
a bull has four daughters in the register, he is also admitted. 

The contents of advanced-register record include the production 
of the cow both in butter-fat and milk ; the number of advanced- 
register daughters each cow has ; the number of sons that are sires 
of advanced-registry daughters ; the number of daughters that are 
dams of advanced daughters. This information is arranged in 
convenient form in the register. 

To get this information in comprehensive form, let us consider 
the pedigree of Lord Netherland De Kol, 22187, including his 
advanced-register record : ^ 

' Pietertje 2d's Koni- 
gen, 10625 

(1-3-0) 
Netherland De Kol, 

10605 
De Kol 2d's Nether- 
land, 1 1 584 

(22-21-28) 
Daisy De Kol, 
20201 



Lord Netherland De 
Kol, 22187 
(120-31-99) 



r Netherland De Kol's 
Perfection, 17713 
(14-14-23) 

Susie De Kol, 33688 
475.5 milk 
20.245 ^^t 
(5-4-8) 



Made up from Vol. 24 of Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register. 



THE ANIMALS — BREEDING 245 

This means that Lord Netherland De Kol has 120 daughters 
with advanced registry records ; that 3 1 of his sons have daughters 
with such records ; and that 99 of his daughters are the dams of 
daughters with advanced registry records; also that his dam, 
Susie De Kol, has a record of 475.5 pounds of milk and 20.245 
pounds of fat in seven days ; and that she has five daughters with 
such records, that four of her sons are sires of daughters with 
similar records, and that eight of her daughters are dams of daugh- 
ters with advanced-registry records ; and so on for each ancestor. 

Such a record shows exactly what has been accomplished. So 
far as ability to produce performers is concerned, such a record 
is vastly more important than either individuality or pedigree. 
Although breeding is subject to the law of chance, yet such records 
eliminate many factors and enable us to predict the outcome of 
a given mating with much more exactness than we have been able 
to do hitherto. This method is directly responsible for the rapid 
progress in improving dairy cows in recent years. 

It will now be seen, therefore, that the breeding of 
good animals demands both knowledge and keen judg- 
ment. We owe great respect to the successful breeders 
of animals. The modern farm animal is much to be 
admired. 

REVIEW 

How important are animals to man ? What do they furnish us ? 

Were the domestic animals always as good as they are now? 
Explain. 

What is environment? Explain it as well as you can. 

Discuss the importance of care and management in producing 
better animals. 

When is growth most rapid? How important, then, is liberal 
feeding when the animal is young? 

What can you say as to the importance of the ration ? and of 
shelter in the breeding of better animals ? 

Discuss training and development with reference to the im- 
provement of animals. 



246 TOPIC 19 

Explain selection. 

Contrast individual merit and performance. 
At what age should animals be bred ? Why ? What is heredity ? 
Explain atavism and reversion. 
What is meant by the purity of ancestors ? 
What is a pure-bred animal ? grade ? 
What is prepotency ? How important ? 

Explain what you mean by variation. What relation has it to 
breeding ? 

How is variation produced? 

What is pedigree ? herd-book ? stud-book ? 

Explain how a pedigree is traced. 

What are breed associations ? How important ? 

Tell what you mean by standard performance. 

What is an advanced registry ? 

What is the value of such a record ? 

How are the facts for registry obtained ? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Choose a domesticated plant or animal with which you are 
familiar, and trace its history as far as possible. Tell in what way 
it has been improved by selection and breeding. 

What are some of the favorable and unfavorable factors or 
conditions that make up your own environment ? 

Have you seen an animal stunted because of poor care ? 

What are some of the differences between the factors or in- 
fluences that make up the environment of a dairy cow and those 
of cattle on the open range? 

What are some of the important things to be remembered in the 
training and development of a colt ? of a dairy heifer ? 

What are some of the points you would consider when selecting 
a sire for a dairy herd? 

How do you explain the occasional appearance of a "black'* 
sheep in a flock that has been bred for years from a white-wooled 
ancestry ? 

If you had a herd of grade dairy cows of average milking ca- 
pacity, how would you go about improving the herd? Which 
would be the cheaper sire for your herd in the long run, a grade 
bull costing $40.00, or a pure-bred bull costing $250.00 or more? 
Explain. 



THE ANIMALS — BREEDING 247 

Try to find two leaves, twigs, flowers, fruits, or animals exactly 
alike in every particular. 

What are crosses ? Give examples. Why is it not good husban- 
dry to cross Jerseys with Shorthorns ? White Leghorns with Barred 
Plymouth Rocks? 

Are there any breeders' associations (animal or crop-improve- 
ment organizations) in your county? If so, give their names and 
describe their work. 

Of what value is a pedigree in the improvement of live-stock? 

Make a list of the dairymen and farmers in your community 
or county who own animals that have been ^ admitted to the ad- 
vanced registry. Get a copy of the pedigree or advanced regis- 
try record of such an animal, if possible, and explain the meaning 
of the various sets of figures under each animal mentioned in the 
pedigree. 

CLASS PROBLEM 

Make a map of the school district or township on the black- 
board, showing the farm boundaries. Indicate those farms on 
which pure-bred or registered live-stock is kept, mentioning the 
kind and number of such animals. Find out whether there is any 
special means or agency for selling such stock. 



TOPIC 20 

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 

An animal left to itself will keep alive and yield off- 
spring, but it is not likely to give a product of great value. 
To know how to feed animals properly is to know some- 
thing of the make-up of their bodies and of the materials 
necessary to keep those bodies in perfect condition. Other 
material is needed to enable the animals to perform work 
and to yield products useful to man. These results are all 
derived from the food, from water, and from the air. 

We are not to allow the animal to roam at will all its 
life and find its food largely by accident. The highly 
Good feeding bred animals of the present day could not 
of animals have been developed without careful feeding. 
Hov/ to feed an animal for the greatest production is a 
complicated matter. Even when one knows what feeds 
to use, it may not be possible to obtain them at a reason- 
able price, and substitutes must be found. We must give 
very close attention to this topic. No longer do we allow 
the animal to shift for itself. 

136. The Animal Body 

The bodies of all animals are made up of water and 
dry-matter. 

We think of the animal body as solid, yet 50 per cent 
The dry- 0^ the live weight is water : the body is half 

matter water. A turnip seems to be a solid sub- 

stance, yet 85 per cent of it is water. If a tuber were to 

248 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 249 

be completely dried in an oven, most of its weight would 

vanish. What is left is the dry-matter. 

The water in the animal tissue has four 

The water 
uses : 

(i) It enters into all bone and flesh as part of the 

structure. 

(2) It carries food from the digestive tract and other 
parts to be used by the cells. 

(3) It carries away the wastes of the body through the 
urine and perspiration. 

(4) It serves to equalize the temperature of the 
body. 

The dry-matter of the body is composed of many 
chemical elements, as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- 
gen, sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, and eight 
or ten others in not so large amount. These of the dry 
elements make up the tissues of the bones, "^^**^^ 
flesh, hide, hair, hoofs, and other parts. 

The tissues are composed of many combinations of 
these elements, or chemical compounds. Since it is 
impossible to follow these compounds through 
the body, they are put into four groups : carb'ohy- 

the mineral compounds, called ash ; ^^^*^^' ^^* 

the compounds containing nitrogen, called protein ; 

the compounds like sugar, starch, cellulose, and the 
like, called carbohydrates ; 

the fats. 

The mineral matter of the body comprises two to five 
per cent of the Hve weight. It is mostly in the bones, 
but some of it is found in all the tissue. This xhe mineral 
mineral matter comes from the food, the inaterial 
plants having taken it from the earth. 



250 



TOPIC 20 



The protein or nitrogen compounds are present par- 
ticularly in such tissues as lean meat, skin, hoofs, horns. 
The nitrogen and hair. Of the body products, wool, 
compounds feathers, the white of eggs, and the curd of 
milk are rich in proteins. The protein of the body must 
come from the protein of the food, the nitrogen having 
been taken from the soil or the air by roots. 




The Silo, for Preserving Green Food. See page 187. 



The carbohydrates are composed of carbon and the 
elements of water (C, H, O). The muscular work de- 
Carbohy- pends mainly on the supply of carbohydrates 

drates [^ the food. The plant gets its water through 

the roots and its carbon from the air. An excess of carbo- 
hydrates in the food can be turned by the body into fat 
and stored for future use. 

Fat is a storehouse of material to be used 

for heat and energy, to do the work of the 

body if the food supply to the animal should fail. The 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 251 

fat in the body can be made from the fat in the food, from 
the carbohydrates, and also from the protein. The fat 
can be used in the cells and furnish everything necessary 
for the welfare of the body except that it cannot furnish 
the protein to build up or repair the tissues needing 
nitrogen. An animal adds to its fat storehouse only 
when it has an excess supply of food, and it lives on this 
fat when the supply of food gives out. 

137. Demands or the Animal on Its Food 

The body of an animal is constantly changing. Old 
tissues wear out and new parts must be built. The 
animal is constantly doing two kinds of what the 
work : internal, such as breathing and keep- animal does 
ing the blood in circulation ; and external, such as walk- 
ing and perhaps drawing a load. To do this, food is 
used up to produce energy, which is the power to do work. 

For the use of man the animal may be required to yield 
an extra supply of wool, meat, milk, eggs, or other prod- 
ucts. These products are simply storage 
forms of energy. All these results must come animal 
from the food, water, and air. That is, the p^^^^^^^ 
food produces energy, as does coal when it is burned 
under a boiler, and as gasoline when burned in an automo- 
bile. 

These requirements may be summed up in the following 
table : 

f a. To maintain body temperature 
h. To repair waste tissues ^g^g ^f ^j^^ 

1. To support life ', c. To form new tissues material and 

I d. For the muscular activ- the energy of 
[ ity of the vital processes ^°°^ 

2. To reproduce life 



252 TOPIC 20 

ia. Stored up as fat for flesh 
b. Secreted, or used in the form of milk 
or wool 
4. To perform labor 

Water and oxygen are food. Every one knows the 

necessity for water. It costs nothing except to collect 

it or transport it. An abundance of pure 

fresh water must always be provided. In 

winter it should not be ice cold, else it will waste the 

animal heat. 

Oxygen is used more than anything else in both food 
and respiration. It is in a way more important than 
water. An animal may go a long time with- 
out food, a shorter time without water, but 
it is a matter of minutes before death if the oxygen supply 
is cut off. Pure air is the freest of all foods. Before 
considering any other food, the feeder must see that 
animals are supplied with an abundance of pure air and 
fresh water. 

138. The Nature of the Food 

The food of animals is made up of the same elements 
as the body. The compounds of these elements are put 
What is in into the same groups, namely ash, protein, 
the food carbohydrates, and fat. The food contains 

more or less water, which is used the same as the water 
taken directly as drink. 

The ash furnishes the mineral matter of the body. 

The protein supplies the materials from which the 
body proteins are made. Any excess protein of the 
food may be stored as body-fat or be used to furnish 
heat-energy. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 253 

The carbohydrates furnish material to provide energy 
to perform the body work. An excess of them is built 
into fat. 

The fat makes body-fat, or may be used up like the 
carbohydrates. One pound of fat will yield two and 
one-fourth times as much energy as one pound of carbo- 
hydrates or protein, when it is used up or '' burned." 

139. Classes of Foods 

Foods supplied to animals fall into two great groups, 
the roughages and the concentrates. 

Roughage comprises foods like hay, silage, and roots, 
which contain either a great amount of indigestible 
matter or a large quantity of water. In 
either case the animal derives a small amount 
of useful material from them. They are rough or coarse 
foods. 

The concentrates are dry highly digestible foods, such 
as wheat bran, corn meal, and linseed-oil meal. From 
small amounts of such foods, an animal de- concentrated 
rives much material useful to it. They are ^°°^ 
mostly prepared materials, sometimes manufactured 
directly, and sometimes the by-products of other manu- 
facture. 

The amount of food fed to an animal in twenty-four 
hours is known as a ration (p. 236). 

140. Digestion 

The bodies of animals are really tubes. The lining of 
the mouth, throat, esophagus, stomach, and intestines is 
a continuation of the outside skin, so modified that a 



254 



TOPIC 20 



part of the food can pass through it into the body struc- 
ture and nourish it. 

Composition of Feeds in Terms of Digestion 



Succulent roughages 
Corn-silage . . . 
Mangels . . . . 



Dry roughages 
Clover hay . 
Timothy ha}' 
Alfalfa hay . 
Mixed hay . 
Corn fodder 



Concentrates— low in protein 
Corn-meal . . . 
Hominy feed . . 
Ground oats . . 
Ground barley 
Dried beet pulp . 

Concentrates— medium m 
protein 

Wheat-bran 

Wheat mixed feed . . . 
Flour middlings .... 

Concentrates —high in protein 
Linseed-oil meal . . . 
Cottonseed meal (prime) 
Gluten feed .... 
Distillers' dried grains . 
Malt sprouts .... 
Brewers' dried grains . 



Digestible 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


I.I 


15.0 


0.7 


0.8 


6.4 


O.I 


7.6 


39-3 


1.8 


3.0 


42.8 


1.2 


10.6 


39-0 


0.9 


4.0 


39-7 


I.I 


3-0 


47.3 


1-5 


6.9 


69.0 


3-5 


7.0 


61.2 


7-3 


9-7 


52.1 


3-8 


9.0 


66.8 


1.6 


4.6 


65.2 


0.8 


12.5 


41.6 


3-0 


12.9 


45-1 


4.0 


15-7 


52.8 


4-3 


30.2 


32.6 


6.7 


33-4^ 


24-3 


7-9 


21.6 


51-9 


3-2 


22.4 


40.4 


11.6 


i 20.3 


47-4 


1-3 


21.5 


30.5 


6.1 



Total 
Digestible 

Nutrients 



17.7 
7.4 



50-9 
48.5 
51.6 
46.2 

53.7 



83.8 
84.6 
70.4 

79-4 
71.6 



60.9 
67.0 
78.2 



77.9 
75-5 
80.7 
88.9 
70.6 
65-7 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 255 

The process of digestion is the separation of that part 
of the food useful to the body from that which is waste. 
The body absorbs what it can use and the what diges- 
waste passes out. Therefore, the first step ^^^^ ^^ 
in the study of foods is to find out how much is digested 
or used by the animal. See pages 120-123. 

The table on the previous page shows the part (in pounds) com- 
monly utilized from one hundred pounds of each of the foods most 
used in feeding animals : ^ 

141. The Total Digestible Nutrients 
In the table, the percentage is shown of digestible pro- 
tein, carbohydrates, and fat in 100 pounds of each feed. 
It has been stated that the body-protein can what the 
be made from nothing but protein foods ; and ^^^^^ ^° ^ 
that extra protein can furnish energy, or be made into 
fat. The carbohydrates can furnish energy or be made 
into fat. The fat of food can furnish energy or be made 
into body-fat. One pound of fat furnishes as much 
energy as 2^ pounds of carbohydrates or protein. 

Then all that really needs to be known about any feed, 
so far as its composition is concerned, is how much protein 
100 pounds can furnish, and how much is the what is meant 
protein plus the carbohydrates, plus the fat ^l^^^^^l^^ 
multiplied by 2^ : nutrients 

Protein4-carbohydrates+(fat X2i). 

This gives us the total digestible nutrients ; and the 
amount for each feed is shown in the last column in the 
table on page 254. 

1 Compiled mainly from " Feeds and Feeding," by Henry and Mor- 



rison, 



256 TOPIC 20 

For example, in corn silage: i.i lb. digestible protein + 15.0 

digestible carbohydrates + (0.7 digestible fat X 2 J) = 17.7 lb. 

„ , total digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of silage. 

Examples rj.. , . , r . , -i ^ 

Inat IS, out 01 100 pounds 01 corn silage, a cow can 

use only 17.7 pounds of digestible material, and she can get only 
I.I pounds of digestible protein to build up or replace body- 
protein. 

A feed is purchased for the total digestible nutrients it contains. 
Then that feed is che cheapest in which one can buy 100 pounds 
of total digestible nutrients for the least price. 

For example, both gluten feed at $56 a ton and cottonseed meal 
at $65 are about equally useful in feeding a cow; which should 
a farmer choose? From the table, gluten feed gives 80.7 pounds 
of total digestible nutrients in one hundred pounds ; multiplied by 
20 equals 1614 lb. in one ton. One hundred pounds of total di- 
gestible nutrients in gluten feed would cost $56 -^ 1614 X 100 = $3.47. 
One hundred pounds of total digestible nutrients in cottonseed 
meal at $65 costs $65 -^15 10X100 = $4.30. This shows at a 
glance that it would not only be cheaper to buy the gluten feed, 
but the digestible nutrients also would be cheaper. 

A table can be made for all the available feeds with their prices 
in any given locality. 

142. The Nutritive Ratio 

In comparing one feed with another it is sometimes 
necessary to see at a glance which feed has the most 
protein compared with the carbohydrates, 
nutritive ratio and the fat multiplied by 2^. This is shown 
*^ by a ratio between the protein on the one 

hand and the carbohydrates and fat on the other hand, 
with the first term representing the protein stated as i. 
This is called the nutritive ratio : 

I : (carbohydrates + fat X 2^). That is, the ratio or proportion 
of protein (i) to the sum of carbohydrates and fat multiplied by 
2i is the nutritive ratio. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



257 



For example, the ratio of protein to the carbohydrates and fat 
in corn-meal is 6.9: (69 + (3.5 X2i)); or 6.9 : 76.9 = i : ii.i. This 
shows that in corn-meal to every part of protein there are more 
than eleven parts of carbohydrates and fat together. 

A good rule for computing the nutritive ratio of a feed or ration 
is : The first term being i and representing the protein, the second 
term equals the carbohydrates plus the fat multiplied by 2J divided 
by the protein. Computed by this rule, the nutritive ratio of 
wheat-bran is i : 3.9. Compared with corn-meal, one would know 
at a glance from the nutritive ratios that wheat-bran is a much 
better source of protein. 

The nutritive ratio of a full ration is computed in the same way. 
It is important to know the ratio of rations because each group of 
animals requires a different nutritive ratio ; that is, one kind of ani- 
mal (as cattle) requires more protein in relation to the carbohy- 
drates and fat than another kind. 

A nutritive ratio in which the carbohydrates greatly 
predominate is said to be ''wide," as in pro- wide and 
portions larger than 1:8. When the protein narrow ratios 
is high (not less than 1:5^), the ratio is ''narrow." 



143. Feeding Standards 

The amount of ration to give the animal varies with 
the age, the size, and the purpose for which the animal is 
fed. The first thing one must know is the amount of 
food required. 

Since the available feeds are unlike in different parts of 
the country or even differ at the same place at various 
times, it is necessary to state the amount of „„ 

what IS meant 

necessary food m general terms. This state- by the feeding 
ment is made in terms of digestible nutrients. ^^^^^^^^ 
Such a statement is called a " feeding standard." It is a 
formula, in terms of digestible protein and total digestible 



258 



TOPIC 20 



nutrients, representing the amount of necessary food for 
a given animal in twenty-four hours. 

The feeding standards in common use are as follows : 

Feeding Standard for Dairy Cows 



For maintenance of looo-pound cow 
To allowance for maintenance add 
For each pound of 2.5 per cent milk 
For each pound of 3.0 per cent milk 
For each pound of 3.5 per cent milk 
For each pound of 4.0 per cent milk 
For each pound of 4.5 per cent milk 
For each pound of 5.0 per cent milk 
For each pound of 5.5 per cent milk 
For each pound of 6.0 per cent milk 
For each pound of 6.5 per cent milk 
For each pound of 7.0 per cent milk 



DiGESTIBtE 

Protein 
Lb. 


Total Digestible 

Nutrients 

Lb. 


0.700 


7.925 


0.052 


0.256 


0.057 


0.286 


0.061 


0.316 


0.065 


0.346 


0.069 


0.376 


0.073 


0.402 


0.077 


0.428 


0.081 


0.454 


0.085 


0.482 


0.089 


0.505 



Feeding Standards for Other Animals to Each iooo Pounds 
Live Weight for 24 Hours 



For fattening 2 -year-old steers 

For fattening lambs 

For fattening pigs 

For fattening working horses 



Digestible 
Protein 



2.0-2.3 
2.5-2.8 
4.4-4.9 

1. 4-1. 7 



Total 
Digestible 

Nutrients 



18.0-20.0 
20.0-23.0 
28.8-31.9 
I2.8-15.6 



Nutritive 
Ratio 



I : 7.0 to 7.8 
I : 6.7 to 7.2 
I : 5.5 to 6.2 
I : 7.8 to 8.3 



The feeding standard for dairy cows is a little different 
from that for other animals because the amount of food 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



259 



needed to maintain the animal and that necessary for the 
making of the milk must be computed sepa- 

. The feeding 

rately. With other four-footed animals there standards 
is no product so separate from the body, and ^^^^ ^^^^ 
therefore the total amount of food is propor- 
tional to the live weight, and the part necessary for main- 
tenance does not need to be calculated separately. 



144. Example of a Ration for a Dairy Cow 

A farmer has a herd of cows in milk. The average cow in the 

herd, let us suppose, weighs 1200 lb. and yields 13 ^,, ^ ^. 

' r-ir- ? o - "^ _,^, Illustrations 

lb. of milk testmg 3.5 per cent butter-fat. What 

is a good ration for the average cow and how will the ration be 

changed to suit different individuals? 

First, the feeding standard must be worked out from the table. 
Since this cow weighs 1200 lb. she will require for maintenance 1.2 
times the amount in the feeding standards for a looo-lb. cow. 
The standard calls for .061 lb. digestible protein and .316 lb. total 
digestible nutrients for i lb. of milk testing 3.5 per cent butter-fat. 
Therefore, 30 lb. of milk would require 30 times these amounts. 
Adding the two requirements together, the result is the total 
amount of food required in 24 hours. 

The computation is as follows : 




Total 
Digestible 

Nutrients 



For maintenance 1200 lb. 
For 20 lb. milk, 3.5 per cent butter- 
fat 



9-51 

948 
18.99 



We may now make out the ration. It will be assumed that the 
farmer has clover hay and corn-silage and that hominy feed, wheat- 
bran, and cottonseed meal will yield total digestible nutrients the 



26o 



TOPIC 20 



cheapest, when the cost of loo lb. of total digestible nutrients is 
computed in all the foods available. 

The necessary amounts to meet the above requirements would be : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 


12 lb. clover hay 

35 lb. corn silage 

3 lb. hominy feed 

3 lb. wheat bran 

3 lb. cottonseed meal .... 


.912 

.385 
.210 

.375 
1.002 


6.108 
6.195 
2.538 
1.827 
2.265 


Total 


2.884 


18.933 



Nutritive ratio = i : (18.933 — 2.884) -r- 2.884 = i ^ 5-6. 

The nutritive ratio may now be found. The second term of 
the nutritive ratio is found by subtracting the protein from the 
total digestible nutrients and dividing the result by the protein. 
This is exactly the same process as in the case of a single feed. 

Rations for dairy cows require a nutritive ratio between i : 4.5 
and 1 : 6. These limits are rather wide. The given feeding stand- 
ard when worked out for most cows calls for a ration with a nutri- 
tive ratio of 1:6. More protein in the ration than called for by 
the standard will do no harm when the protein feeds are relatively 
the cheapest. 

We are now to choose the foods for the ration. The roughages 
on hand will be fed. A succulent or juicy roughage is necessary 
for dairy cattle. The ration is completed or balanced by means 
of the purchased concentrates. A cow will eat about i lb. of hay 
and about 3 lb. of silage to 100 lb. of live weight, when fed a 
reasonable amount of grain. The remainder of the requirement 
of the feeding standard must be made up with the concentrates. 

About I lb. of concentrates will be needed for 3 to 3J lb. of milk. 
In choosing the concentrates, price is a large factor, but the foods 
must always be suitable and sufficient high protein food put in to 
meet the requirement. When high protein foods are cheap, the 
upper limit is not to put in so much that the nutritive ratio will be 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



261 



narrower than i : 4.5. As shown by the above ration, from one- 
third to one-half of the mixture of concentrates must be high pro- 
tein food. One bulky concentrate must be used, so that the mix- 
ture will not weigh more than one pound to the quart. Three 
or more concentrates should always be put in the mixture. 



145. Manurial Values of Feeds 

When feeds are purchased, the manurial value should 
always be considered. The parts that are undigested 
carry nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, ^^^^^ ^.^^ 
and appear in the manure. These materials results in the 
are largely available to plants. The wastes ^^^^^^ 
of the body carry the same fertilizing constituents and 
appear in the manure and urine. 

In agriculture of the right kind, a farmer must so handle 
his land that it is always growing better and richer. There- 
fore, he should know which feeds contain the most ferti- 
lizing constituents. Besides the minerals, barnyard man- 
ure adds much humus or vegetable matter to the soil. 

The fertilizing constituents in the foods mentioned in this chap- 
ter are given in the following table (P2O5 is phosphoric acid. K2O 
is potash) : 

Fertilizing Constituents in Foods 



In 2000 Pounds 



Succulent roughages 

Corn silage . . . 

Mangels . . . . 

Dry roughages 

Clover hay . . . 

Timothy hay . . 

Alfalfa hay . . . 

Mixed hay . . . 

Corn fodder . . 



Total Nitrogen 


Total P2O5 


Total K2O 


lb. 


lb. 


lb. 


6.8 . 


3-2 


8.8 


4.4 


0.8 


4.4 


41.0 


7.8 


32.6 


19.8 


6.2 


27.2 


47.6 


10.8 


44.6 


27.6 


94 


38.0 


21.4 


6.6 


17.8 



262 TOPIC 20 

Fertilizing Constituents in Foods — Continued 



In 2000 Pounds 



Total Nitrogen 



Concentrates — low in protein 
Corn meal . . 
Hominy feed . 
Ground oats . 
Ground barley 
Dried beet pulp 

Concentrates — medium in 
protein 

Wheat bran 

Wheat mixed feed . . . 
Flour middlings .... 

Concentrates — high in pro- 
tein 
Linseed-oil meal . . 
Cottonseed meal, prime 
Gluten feed . . . 
Distillers' dried grains 
Malt sprouts . . . 
Brewers' dried grains 



29.8 
34.0 
39-6 
36.8 
28.4 



51.2 

53.8 
57-0 



108.4 

127.4 

81.2 

98.2 

84.4 
84.8 



Total P2O5 



lb. 

12.2 
24.8 
16.2 
17.0 
4.8 



59-0 
43-8 



34-0 
53-2 
12.4 
13.6 

33-0 
19.8 



Total K2O 



lb. 

7-4 
19.0 
II. 2 
14.8 

7.6 



324 
17.6 



25.4 

35-0 
4.6 

3-4 

36.6 

1.8 



All the fertilizing ingredients in the food, when eaten, 
must appear in the manure or urine or in 

Where the ^^ 

fertilizing some body product unless stored in the body 
materials go .^^^^f ^ jf stored, the animal would be grow- 
ing or gaining in weight. 

Mature animals, other than those fattening, do not 
gain in weight, so that all the fertilizing constituents in 
the food must be returned to the manure and urine unless 
they go into some product, as wool or eggs. A mature 
horse must return all. A cow returns all except what 
goes into the milk. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



263 



The following table shows the percentages of the fertilizing con- 
stituents in the feed voided by animals : 

Proportion in Foods of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and 
Potash, Voided by Animal 



Horse at work 
Fattening ox . 
Fattening sheep 
Fattening pig . 
Milch cow . . 
Calf, fed milk 



Nitrogen 


Phosphoric Acid and 
Potash 


(Per cent) 


(Per cent) 


lOO.O 


lOO.O 


96.1 


97-7 


95-7 


96.2 


85.3 


96.0 


75-5 


89.7 


30-7 


45-7 



Therefore, when purchasing a feed, the net outlay is the cost 
by the ton less the value of the fertilizer returned when the material 
is fed. The cost of total digestible nutrients should be computed 
on the basis of the net cost. 

The percentages returned, as given, presuppose com- 
plete saving and utilizing of the manure and urine. 
This is not always possible. It is most nearly 
accomplished when the manure is taken to must be 
the field immediately after it is dropped. All ^^^® 
urine should be absorbed and the manure spread on the 
fields as soon as possible. We must also allow for loss in 
the handling. 



As an example, the value of manure resulting from one ton of 
gluten feed given to a dairy cow may be computed. This feed has 
been quoted at $56 a ton. At the time this paper is written, 
nitrogen is worth 27 cents a pound, phosphoric acid 7 cents, and 
potash 35 cents. It is assumed that the manure and urine are so 
saved that 50 per cent of the nitrogen and 75 per cent of the phos- 
phoric acid and potash are made available to the soil. Then from 
the table of constituents there would be returned by a milch cow 
from 2000 lb. of gluten feed, 40.6 lb. of nitrogen, 9.3 lb. of phos- 



264 TOPIC 20 

phoric acid, and 3.5 lb. of potash. This amount of fertiHzer at the 
prices mentioned above is worth $12.84. Deducting from $56.00, 
the net cost of 2000 lb. of gluten feed is $43.16. 

In choosing feed, the fertilizing value should always be 

worked out and the cost of digestible material computed 

from the net cost. This will show the lower 

Figuring the ^^^ ^^^^ q£ ^-^^ protein feeds in relation to 

fertilizer value 01 

other feeds and, most of all, it will teach the 
necessity for saving urine and handling manure promptly. 

REVIEW 

Why is it necessary to give so much attention to the feeding of 
animals ? 

How is the animal body composed ? 

What is ash ? protein ? carbohydrates ? fat ? 

State the use or ofhces of each. 

Why does the animal make such demands on its food ? 

What is energy ? 

What can you say about water and oxygen (air) as food ? 

What are the elements in food? 

Name the classes of food. 

What is a ration? State what is meant by total digestible 
nutrients. What are digestible nutrients? 

Explain digestion. 

What are the total digestible nutrients in corn-silage? in 
gluten feed ? in ground barley ? 

Explain the nutritive ratio. 

When is a nutritive ratio wide, and when narrow? 

State what you understand by a feeding standard. 

What is meant by the manurial value of feeds ? 

Why should the farmer give attention to the manurial value as 
well as to the feeding value ? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Make a list of the different kinds of food you eat which may be 
classified as fats, carbohydrates, nitrogen or protein foods. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 265 

Why is it necessary that most animals must have plenty of 
water? How much pure water should a growing boy or girl drink 
each day? an adult person ? 

What wild animals with which you are familiar hibernate or 
remain in a sleepy or quiescent stage during the winter? How 
can they go for so long a period without food or water ? 

Make a Ust of the different kinds of roughage foods used on the 
farms in your neighborhood. Which is fed to cows? to horses? 
What is the value or cost a ton of the roughage foods ? 

Make a list of the concentrates. Which are produced on the 
farms? Which are purchased from dealers? What is the pre- 
vailing cost a ton of the different kinds of concentrates used in your 
region ? 

What has been the prevailing price for the past five years? 
How does the average cost of concentrated dairy feeds compare 
with the average yearly price of milk in butter for the same period ? 

Find out the v/eight of the favorite cow in your own or in a 
neighbor's herd as well as the average daily amount of milk and 
butter-fat she produces. With this information available, deter- 
mine the total daily amount of digestible protein and total digest- 
ible nutrients needed. 

Find out the average daily weight of the different foods fed to 
the dairy cows in your own or in some neighbor's herd. Determine 
the amount of digestible protein and the total digestible nutrients 
in each feed as well as the total amounts of each fed daily. 

From the figures obtained in the preceding problem, determine 
the nutritive ratio of the ration. 

How do the rations fed to your dairy cows compare with the 
standards as outlined in the test ? 

Determine the value of the fertilizing constituents in some of 
the foods given your farm animals in accordance with the tables 
and prices given in the test. 

How is the manure handled on your farm ? What improvement 
in method, if any, could be made to save more of the fertilizing 
constituents of the barn manures produced by your farm animals ? 

CLASS PROBLEM 

Find out the total amount of mill-feed or concentrates used in 
the school district during the year. Determine, if possible, the 
wholesale as well as the retail prices on each of these feeds. Cal- 
culate the saving that could be effected by several farmers cooper- 
ating to purchase the feeds in carload (wholesale) lots. 



TOPIC 21 

HORSES AND MULES 

It is sometimes said that the horse will be displaced by 
the automobile and motor truck. It is true that horses 
may be needed less on the road, but as work animals 
they are not supplanted by the gasoline engine. 

Horses are used in five general classes of enterprise : 

(i) For farm work. 
Classes of (2) For work in village and city and in the 

horses industries. 

(3) For military work. 

(4) For driving on the road. 

(5) For riding. 

In speed, the automobile will be used in place of the 
horse. For drawing heavy loads on the road, the power 
The horse and truck is rapidly coming into use. But on 
the tractor ^}jg farm there remain a thousand kinds of 
work for which no machine would be practicable. The 
tractor does not take the place of the horse ; it performs 
certain labor more rapidly and effectively than horses, 
and because of the extra crop makes more work for 
horses in tilling, harvesting, and hauling. We cannot 
conceive of an agriculture without the labor of draft 
animals, unless men themselves assume the burden, 
tilling very small areas. 

Moreover, there is a certain pride in owning a good 

horse. The farm lad will never forsake his horse. He 

266 




X. The ^loDERX IMule Team. — Bringing in a load of hay 



HORSES AND MULES 267 

learns his habits ; he has pride in a good harness, and a 
light attractive buggy. He appreciates a 

1 . n . 1 1 A good horse 

good drait team, that is well trained to do 

his bidding. He cannot get the same satisfactions from 

a machine. 

There are over one hundred million horses and more 
than twenty million mules and donkeys in the world. 
Of this number about one-fifth of the horses How many 
and one-fourth of the mules and donkeys Worses 
are in the United States. Horses are distributed gen- 
erally throughout the whole United States. The five 
leading states in point of numbers are, Iowa, Illinois, 
Texas, Kansas, and Missouri. The leading horse-pro- 
ducing section is the West North Central States. Not 
enough horses are raised in the New England, Middle 
Atlantic, and East North Central States to supply the 
demand. 

146. The Types and Classes of Horses 

The kinds of horses are many, — large and small, 
slender and heavy, fast and slow, white and brown, and 
black. There is no one 
kind or class of farm 
horses. The farmer may 
choose the breed that 
seems best to suit his 
purpose. Most farm 
horses represent no par- 
ticular breed. They are 
grades. ,^ 

The horse is native to :^if' 
the eastern hemisphere. The Heavy Horse. — Clydesdale. 




268 



TOPIC 21 




The Light Horse. — Standardbred. 



The wild horses of the far West have come from stock 

brought by the early explorers. The horse belongs to 

The horse in the genus Equus, being known as E. cahallus. 

zoology Equ-usisthe 

Latin word for horse, 

and several English words 

are derived from it. 

Thus, a statue of a person 

on horseback is called an 

equestrian statue. 

The various breeds of 
horses may 

The breeds , . t ^ 

be classified 
as follows, according to 
type: 

(i) Draft : Percheron, French Draft, Belgian, Clydes- 
dale, Shire, Suffolk. 

Hackney, French Coach, Ger- 
Bay. 

(3) Light Harness : American 
Standardbred Trotter, Standard- 
bred Pacer. 

(4) Saddle : Arab, Thorough- 
bred, American Saddle Horse, 
Hunter. 

(5) Ponies. 

We may now learn the char- 
acteristics of these different 

types of horses. In doing so we must use the words 
known to horsemen ; there are no other words that so 
well describe the animals. If the descriptions are not un- 
derstood, there will be some person in the district who 



(2) Heavy Harness : 
man Coach, Cleveland 

1- 




Shetland Pony 



HORSES AND MULES 269 

can explain them to the school, perhaps bringing a horse 
so that the different parts can be pointed out. The 
height of a horse is measured in hands (a hand is 4 in.). 

The draft horses are known by compactness and 
massiveness, power rather than speed being desired. 
They should be sufficiently heavy to enable 
them to throw the necessary weight into the 
collar to move a heavy load and at the same time retain 
their footing. The drafter in good condition should not 
weigh less than one thousand six hundred pounds. 

The heavy harness horse, in any breed, should be 
closely coupled, symmetrical, and have a high degree of 
style and finish. His action should be flashy 
and characterized by high hock- and knee- harness 
action. ^'^^^^ 

The light harness horse is long, rangy, lithe, narrow- 
bodied, and deep. The stride should be long. Light harness 
straight, regular, and rapid. This light kind bJ*eeds 
of horse is used for road driving and for racing under 
harness. The action may be either a pace or a trot. 

The saddle horse, of any breed, should be closely 
coupled, short in the back, strong in the loin, and be 
capable of carrying considerable weight. 
The shoulder should be long and sloping and 
extend well into the back. The stride should be collected 
and springy, to insure easy riding. 

The market classes of horses are as follows : draft 
horses, chunks, wagon horses, carriage horses, road 
horses, and saddle horses. The factors which Horses in 
determine how well horses sell on the market *^® market 
are soundness, conformation, quality, condition, action, 
age, color, education, and general appearance. Horses 



270 



TOPIC 21 



sell best at five to eight years of age. Of whatever class, 
the horse should be well trained for his work. 



147. Descriptions of Some of the Breeds 

The x\rabian is the oldest known breed of horses. The 
Arabs range in height from fourteen to fifteen 
hands, and weight from 850 to 1000 pounds. 

In color they are bay, brown, or chestnut, and sometimes 

gray or black. 




'■^^ 



Arabian Horse 



The Thoroughbred had its origin in England, and is a 

descendant of the Arabian. It is a running horse ranging 
in weight from 900 to 1050 pounds. The 
usual colors are bay, brown, and chestnut. 
The American Saddler was developed in the United 

States, principally in Kentucky and Tennessee. In 
height, this breed of saddler is fifteen and 
one-fourth to fifteen and three-fourths hands, 

and weighs 950 to 1050 pounds. The colors are black, 

bay, brown, and chestnut. 



Thoroughbred 



Saddler 



HORSES AND MULES 



271 



The Standardbred originated in the United States. It 
has. been developed for the purpose of business and pleas- 
ure, driving and racing. The gait may be 
either a trot or a pace. The animals stand 
fifteen and one-fourth to sixteen hands high, and weigh 
900 to 1 1 50 pounds. They may be of any color from 
bay to black. 

The Hackney came from England. The breed is 

noted for its aristocratic bearing, and high trappy knee- 

and hock-action. 

rr^i • • 1 Hackney 

Theprmcipaluse 

is for park driving. Hack- 
neys range in height from fif- 
teen and one-half to sixteen 
hands, and weigh 1000 to 
1200 pounds. In color they 
are chestnut, bay, or brown 
with white markings. 

The Percheron exceeds in 
popularity and in number 
any other draft horse in the United States. 
This breed originated in France. The color 
of the breed is gray or black. The Percheron stands 
fifteen and one-half to seventeen hands in height, and 
weighs 1800 to 2300 pounds. The use is principally for 
hea\^ hauling. 

The Clydesdale originated in Scotland. The prevailing 
colors are bay, brown, black, or chestnut, with white 
markings on the face and below the knees and 
hocks. There is considerable hair on the ^ ^^ ^ ® 
legs. In height Clydesdales are sixteen to sixteen and 
one-half hands, and weigh 1800 to 2300 pounds. 




Hackney 



272 



TOPIC 21 




Belgian 



The Belgian came from Belgium. The prevaiHng 

colors are chestnut, roan, bay, and brown. The animals 

are in height from sixteen to seventeen hands, 

Belgian , . , . 

and weigh irom 
1600 to 2300 pounds. 

The Shire originated in 

England. The common 

colors are bay, 

Shire horse , i , i 

black, and 
brown with white markings 
on face and legs below knees 
and hocks. There is con- 
siderable hair on the legs. 
In height the breed is sixteen to seventeen hands, and in 
weight from 1800 to 2300 pounds. 

148. Breeding of Farm Horses 

To be most profitable, farm mares should be both good 
workers and good breeders. If pure-bred stallions are 
available, pure-bred mares of the same breed 
will give better returns than grades. The 
mares should be as uniform in type and action as possible. 
They should be feminine in appearance and possessed of 
style, good disposition, and quality. They should be 
sound, or at least not of faulty conformation. 

The stallion should possess the same qualities as the 
mare except that he should be bold and masculine in his 
make-up. 

Only very well-grown draft mares should be bred at two 
Raising the years of age ; others should be allowed to go 
farm horse ^j^^j} ^^ ^gg^g^ three years of age before being 
bred. The period of gestation in mares is 345 days. 



The farm 
horse 



HORSES AND MULES 273 

The natural time for the mare to foal is in the spring. 
However, autumn foals may be raised, providing the 
necessary care and attention can be given. Some mares 
will breed until twenty-five years of age. However, if 
they continue to breed until fifteen years old, they may 
be considered as doing well. 

149. Feeding the Work Horse 

The draft horse should be fed and watered regularly. 
The amount of food required will depend on the size of the 
horse and the severity of the work. Good feeding and 
good care produce marked results in horses. 

The horse is ordinarily given about two and one-half 
pounds of food daily for every one hundred pounds of 
weight. From one-third to two-thirds of 
this amount, depending on the character of 
the labor, should be grain ; and the remaining portion 
should be good clean hay. The more severe the labor, 
the larger the proportion of grain to be fed ; the lighter 
the labor, the larger the proportion of hay. 

Oats are the best single grain for the horse. However, 
corn and oats mixed half and half by weight make a very 
satisfactory grain ration, and the mixture 
is usually much cheaper than oats alone. 
Timothy hay is the best roughage for the horse, all things 
considered. Both clover and alfalfa give satisfactory 
results, but should be fed in limited amounts. 

The work horse should be watered at least five times a 
day : before and after the morning meal, before and after 
the midday meal, and before the evening meal. 

Small quantities of salt should be kept 
before the horse at all times. 



274 TOPIC 21 

Whenever horses are to remain idle, even if for only a 
day or two, the grain ration should be reduced. 

It is sometimes advisable to turn idle horses into a well- 
protected lot, and rough them through the winter on 

_ . hay, straw, or corn-fodder. If straw or corn- 

Pasturing r 1 • 1 

loader is used as roughage, a small quantity 

of grain must be fed in addition. In case horses are 

wintered in this way, grain feeding should begin some 

six weeks before spring work opens, in order to put the 

animal in condition. 

150. Care and Diseases 

No animal responds more quickly than the horse to 
good care. He trains easily. His habits can be con- 
How to care trolled by the painstaking horseman. The 
for the horse stable should be light and clean. The horse 
should be groomed morning and night. The farm boy 
will learn not to overdrive his horse, or to leave a steam- 
ing horse in the draft. He will look out for the animal's 
comfort, protect him from fright and from injury, see 
that the harness fits, keep him away from animals that 
have distemper or glanders. If the owner really likes 
his horse, the animal is less likely to acquire disease. 

The farm youth will also learn how to detect unsound- 
ness, as heaves ; and blemishes, such as wind-puffs, side- 
bones, swollen joints, and the like. 

Navel or joint disease affects newly born foals. Seventy- 
five per cent of the cases occur before the colts are three 
Diseases of weeks old. The disease is due to the entrance 
the horse ^f pus-forming germs- through the stump 

of the raw navel cord. To prevent the disease, the foal 
should be born in a clean stall with bright clean bedding. 



HORSES AND MULES 275 

Immediately after birth, saturate the stump of the navel 
cord with a solution of powdered corrosive sublimate, 
two drams in one pint of boiling water to which has been 
added, after cooling, two drams of tincture of iron. 
Repeat the application twice a day until the cord shrivels 
up, drops off, and no raw spots remain. This disinfectant 
solution is a poison and should be handled accordingly. 

Cohc may result from whatever suspends or arrests di- 
gestion. There are two general causes : a diseased con- 
dition of the digestive system, and what- ^ ^.^ 
ever may render food difficult of digestion. 
CoHc may be due to an excess of gas in the digestive 
tract, to an excess of partially digested food and fecal 
matter, and to interferences with the nerve centers of 
the digestive tract. CoHc is always accompanied by 
pain, which may be very slight or very intense. 

The treatment for colic is to give rectal injections of 
three or four gallons of water at body temperature. A 
cupful of raw linseed oil, glycerine, or a little coiic : treat- 
hard soap may be added. Give a pint of raw ^^^^ 
linseed oil to which has been added four tablespoonfuls 
of turpentine and three tablespoonfuls of laudanum. 
Chloral hydrate may be used in place of the turpentine 
and laudanum. A level tablespoonful should be given in 
a quart of water. If there is no improvement, a second 
dose of chloral hydrate may be given in about forty 
minutes, but only one-half tablespoonful. 

151. The Mule 

The mule is a hybrid or cross between a male donkey 
(jack) and a female horse (mare). Mules do not breed 
between themselves. 



276 



TOPIC 21 



Mules are valuable work animals, adapted to hard 
conditions which the horse will not' endure. They are 
Why mules patient, strong 
are valuable ^nd tough, hardy, 
surefooted, little liable to 
disease. The mule is largely 
used in the South for driving 
as well as for heavy con- 
tinuous work. 

Of late years the mule has 
been much improved by the 
choice of better parents, 
particularly by larger jacks. 
Special breeds of jacks are 
now used. Large heavy 
mules are common, having 
excellent conformation and 
commanding a high price in 
the market. They often stand 15 to 16^ hands high 
and weigh iioo to 1600 pounds. 

REVIEW 

Will the automobile displace die horse? Explain. 

For what purposes are horses used ? 

Name the types of horses. 

What are the market classes? 

Where are the leading horse-producing parts of the United 
States? 

How do horses range in weight? in height? 

How can you tell a Thoroughbred ? A Clydesdale? A Stand- 
ardbred ? 

What can you say about the breeding of horses for farm use? 

What are the considerations in the feeding and watering of the 
horse ? 




The Modern Mule 



HORSES AND MULES 



277 



How may idle horses be wintered? 
State the need of good care and attention. 
What is navel disease ? treatment ? 
Give symptoms and treatment of colic. 
What is a mule ? 



THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Has the number of horses decreased in your community because 
of the automobile and motor truck? 

What is the average number of horses to the farm in your district ? 

What are the breeds? How many breeds do you know? 

Describe the prevailing method of feeding horses by the farmers 
of your acquaintance. 

Is there a horse market in your vicinity ? 

If you wanted to buy a horse, where would you go? 

What can you say about the blemishes on a horse ? How many 
blemishes do you know? 

What is a pacer? trotter? 

Are there many mules in your region? Tell how the mule 
differs from the horse in appearance, build, and hoofs. 



CLASS PROBLEMS 

With a score-card the class should judge two or three kinds of 
horses. A horseman or farmer in the district probably will be glad 
to drive a horse to school and give instruction. Use a measuring- 
stick, that you may be accurate in the work. 




Instrument for Measuring Horses: 
four feet long, 18 inches wide (Harper). 



TOPIC 22 



CATTLE 




The Beef Form. 



Shorthorn 



Two well-marked types of cattle are known on the 
farms, — the dairy or milk-producing type, and the 

beef type. While all cattle 
are good for beef and the 
females yield milk, yet 
some of the breeds are 
specially adapted to one 
purpose and some to the 
other purpose. 

It is not to be understood 
that all cattle are specially developed as milk-producers 
Double-pur- or beef-producers. Many of them answer 
pose cattle j^q^^}^ purposes very well, although not ex- 
celling in either ; these are known as dual-purpose cattle. 
The Milking Shorthorn is an 
example. 

Many farm animals are of 
no particular breed, being 

Not all cattle ^^^^ly what^ is 

represent a called "native 
^'''^ stock." They 

are really not native to North 

America in the sense of having originated here or being 
indigenous ; but they are come from the common stock 
of the country, probably the descendants of many early 

278 




The Dairy Form. — Holstein 



CATTLE 279 

importations from Europe. The cattle of the country, 
however, are rapidly taking on the characteristics of 
breeds, and most herds now are either pure-breds or 
good grades of the breeds. In this respect they show 
more progress than the common horse stock on farms. 

152. Where Cattle Come From 

The breeds of cattle are of European origin. Unless 
the French Canadian can be called a breed, none has 
originated in North America. In this respect nq American 
cattle differ from horses, for the Standard- ^^^^^ 
bred, or Trotter, is an American breed. Breeds of cattle 
have come to be known within the past two hundred years. 
They have been the result of careful breeding and selec- 
tion, to meet the needs of the people who developed them. 

The beef breeds are of English and Scotch origin, and 
are probably developed from cattle imported into Eng- 
land at the time of the Norman Conquest. Native coun- 
The English are a beef-eating people. The ^^ ^^ ^'^^^^ 
dairy breeds are of Dutch, Channel Islands, and Scotch 
origin. 

The domestic cattle of Europe and North America are 
supposed to have developed from two or three species now 
extinct as native wild animals. These an- origin of 
cestors existed on the continent of Europe. *^°^® *^^**^® 
One of them was the urus, which Caesar mentions as 
being abundant in the mountains of what we now know 
as central Europe. The domestic cattle are collectively 
known to zoologists as Bos taurus. These are Latin words, 
bos meaning an ox, bull, or cow, and taurus a bull ; they 
have given us English words, as in bovine and taurine. 



28o 



TOPIC 22 



Zebu 









The sacred cattle or zebus of India are of a different 
species, Bos indictis. They have been introduced into 
the West Indies 
and the southern 
United States in the hope 
that they would better with- 
stand the climate and dis- 
eases. They have been crossed 
with common cattle, and one 
sometimes sees evidences of 
their influence. They have 
a hump over the shoulders, a 
long dewlap, and long droop- 
ing ears ; they are grayish or 
tawny in color. 

In some countries the true 
buffalo is reared as a work 
Buffalo and animal, and also 
bison fQj. i^xiWk and beef. This is a very different 

animal from the American bison, which is improperly 




The American Bison 




m^Mi, i;i/nn»'/ 



Texas Longhorn 



CATTLE 



25l 



called a buffalo. One of the offshoots of the wild cattle 
of North America was the Texas Longhorn, now prac- 
tically extinct. 

153. Dairy Cattle 

A modern dairy cow is a wonderful animal in the 
product she yields. A good animal of one of the dairy 
breeds will give from fifteen to more than importance of 
twenty times her own weight of milk in a the dairy cow 
year. This is more than her own weight every month. 
She will yield her own weight in butter-fat within the 
year. The old-fashioned "scrub" cow no longer has a 
place in profitable farming. We are to approach the 
study of the dairy cow with the conviction that she is 
one of the major factors in modern life, now that great 
cities must be daily supplied with fresh milk and many 
milk products. We shall study this question again in 
Topic 27, when we come to the separate consideration 
of milk and its products (page 354). 

In the United States there are about twenty-two 
million dairy cows. The five leading dairy states in 
order of numbers of dairy cows are New 
York, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and 
Illinois. These five states contain about one- third of all 
the dairy cows of the United States. According to 
estimates made by the United States Department of 
Agriculture in 191 7, dairy cattle in the United States 
had a valuation of over $1,358,400,000. 

The census of Canada gives the number of milch cows 
in 191 1 as more than two and one-half million; and all 
other "horned cattle" were nearly four million. The 
value of the milch cows was $109,575,000. 



282 TOPIC 22 

The dairy cow is in greatest numbers in those regions 

in which the population is comparatively dense and 

• land, labor, and feed relatively high priced. 

It is the most economical of all domestic 

animals in the production of human food. 

The dairy cow has a characteristic form of body. 
When in full flow of milk she is usually spare, angular. 
Form of the ^nd wedge-shaped, with large capacity of 
dairy cow body and udder. The wedge shape is ap- 
parent when the animal is seen sidewise, the hind-quarters 
being broad and deep, with the body narrowing toward 
the fore-quarters. If seen from above or in front, the 
wedge shape is also apparent, due to the width of the 
hind-quarters. She is ''bony" rather than fat and round. 
The milk-veins beneath the body are very large. 

154. The Dairy Breeds 

The principal dairy breeds are the Jersey, Guernsey, 
Holstein, and Ayrshire. The Brown Swiss, Dutch Belted, 
and Milking Shorthorn may 
be classed as minor dairy 
breeds. 

The Jersey is more widely 

distributed in the United 

States than any 
Jersey 

other breed. 
This breed had its origin in 

the Island of Jersey, one of the Channel Islands. The 
Jersey is a small animal, weighing 800 to 1000 pounds 
when mature. The color is usually some shade of solid 
fawn with a black nose, a black tongue, and a black switch 
or tail. The breed in general produces a smaller quantity 




CATTLE 



283 




Guernsey Bull 



of milk than the other dairy breeds, but the milk is 
rich in fat, testing on the average about 5.3 per cent 
butter-fat. 

The Guernsey originated on the Island of Guernsey, 
also one of the Channel Islands. The animal is slightly 

larger than the ^ 

^ Guernsey 

Jersey, averag- 
ing about 1050 pounds. 
In color it is some shade 
of fawn and white. The 
muzzle and tongue should 
be flesh-colored and the 
switch white. Guernsey milk 
is very highly colored and of medium quantity. Gue msey s 
produce more milk than the Jerseys, but the test is slightly 
lower, being about 4.9 per cent butter-fat. 

The Holstein came from Holland. This is the largest 
of the dairy breeds, a mature cow weighing on the average 
about 1250 pounds. The color is black and 
white. With the exception of the Jersey, 
there are more Holsteins in the United States than any 
other breed. The Holstein 
produces a larger quantity of 
milk than any of the other 
dairy breeds. The milk is 
low in color, and the average 
percentage is about 3 . 5 butter- 
fat, although individual ani- 
mals may test higher in this 
respect. 

The Ayrshire had its origin in Scotland. The color of 
the breed is some shade of red or brown, and white. 



Holstein 




Ayrshire 



!84 



TOPIC 22 



The most characteristic features of the breed are the 

long, curving, erect horns and square symmetrical udder. 

The average weight of a cow is about ioc;o 

Ayrshire i rr^i . i i 

pounds. The animals have a tendency to 
smoothness in all parts. The Ayrshire produces a fair 
quantity of milk, low in color, and testing about 3.8 
per cent fat. 

155. Management of the Dairy Herd 

In the management of the dairy herd, four points arc 
to be kept clearly in view : 
Care of the (i) Clean, well-lighted stables. 

dairy herd (2) Careful attention to feed. 

(3) Thorough grooming of the animals so that they 
may be clean at all times. 



te-^-^--/^,l_JiilSllill!liilyiiSili 




J^TgemM.' 



Cattle Barn and Silo 

(4) Testing for performance so that the unprofitable 
animals may be removed. 

With the coming of the highly developed dairy cow, a 
new type of stable has been devised. It is so constructed 
as to be kept clean, easily ventilated, and free 
of dust. The floor is cement. Hose-water 
is at hand. A trough behind the animals provides 



The stable 



CATTLE ' 285 

drainage. The manure is removed frequently. Only 
clean bedding is used. The stanchions provide free 
movement of the animal without allowing her to turn 
around or to interfere with her neighbor. The cow is 
always tied, there being several devices for hitching 
about the neck. For large herds special stables are 
erected, but the small herd, of a few cows, may be ac- 
commodated in a well-built or reconstructed stable in 
the ordinary barn. 

A record of production should be kept of each individual 
cow in order that the undesirable cows, both from stand- 
point of yield of milk and as breeders, may Testing the 
be elimiinated. When the animal is tested ^^^^ 
for yield and quality of milk, it may be found that she 
does not pay for her keep and care. She is called a 
"boarder." Such cows are to be fattened and sold for 
beef. Cow-testing associations are now organized (p. 
140) for the making of these tests for the neighborhood, 
a man being employed for the purpose. 

Heifers should not have their first calves before they 
are twenty-four to thirty months old. Jerseys may be 
bred somewhat earlier than Holsteins. Only 
a few of the calves are reared to maturity, — 
as many as the farmer needs to keep his herd full. He 
retains those that seem to promise well. Very few of 
the males are wanted. The remainder are sold for 
veal. It would not pay to try to rear them, for they 
would require too much milk and other food and de- 
mand attention that should be given to the making 
of the dairy products. If all the calves were reared 
for beef, we should have a famine in milk and an over- 
plus of meat. 



286 TOPIC 22 

The calf is usually allowed milk from its dam for two 
or three days. It should always get the first milk of 
Care of the the mother. In two or three days the calf 
^^^^ is usually taught to drink milk from a pail. 

Small quantities of whole milk are fed at first, gradually 
increasing the amount. When two to four weeks of age 
a portion of the whole milk is gradually replaced by skim 
milk, taking about ten days to make the change. Calves 
should be taught to eat concentrates and good clean 
roughage, such as clover or alfalfa, as soon as they will 
do so readily. 

Dairy cows produce milk most economically while on 
pasture. Unless a cow is a high producer 
it is usually not economy to feed any grain 
while on pasture. 

When not on pasture, summer conditions should be 
approached as nearly as possible. Cows should be fed 
an abundance of palatable food, a ration which is carry- 
ing sufficient nutriment and which is succulent. Mod- 
erate temperatures should be maintained and the cows 
kept in comfort. 

The following general statements may be made on the 
amount of grain and roughage to feed : 

I. Feed all the roughage the cows will eat up clean, at 

Feeding the all times. 

dairy cow 2. Feed One pound of grain for each three 

or four pounds of milk produced. 

3. Feed all the cows will eat without gaining in weight. 

The second rule applies only when roughage, such as 
alfalfa and clover hay or corn-silage, is fed. 

The ideal ration for the dairy cow should be balanced, 
palatable, laxative, sufficiently bulky, in variety in both 



. CATTLE 287 

the roughage and concentrate. It should be adapted 
to the season in which it is fed and be as low in cost as 
is consistent, without losing sight of the ^j^^ ^^^ion 
other quahties. 

156. Two Diseases of Cattle 

The two most serious diseases affecting dairy cattle 
are tuberculosis and contagious abortion. Each of these 
diseases causes enormous losses. It has been estimated 
that contagious abortion alone causes an annual loss of 
upwards of $20,000,000 in the United States. 

Tuberculosis is caused by a germ, estabhshing itself 
in the lungs and elsewhere. The losses from tuberculosis 
are due to death, decreased production, and .^^^^^^^^^^-^ 
shortened period of usefulness. 

The physical appearance of a cow may indicate the 
presence of tuberculosis, or the tuberculine test may be 
applied. The tuberculine is injected underneath the 
skin, a typical rise in temperature thereafter indicating 
the presence of the disease. This test is to be made 
only by persons skilled in the operation. 

There is no direct cure for tuberculosis. Prevention 
by means of sanitary measures is most satisfactory. 
Animals known to be tubercular should be Treatment 
slaughtered and the premises thoroughly for tubercuio- 
cleaned and disinfected. If the herd is to ^'^ 
be rid of tuberculosis, ah animals should be tested every 
six months until no reactors are found, after which time 
the test may be made yearly. 

It is possible, although not usually practicable, to 
develop a healthy herd from a tubercular herd by the 

"Bang system." This system is the isolation of the 



288 TOPIC 22 . 

infected animals from the remainder of the herd. All 
calves born of tuberculous parents are immediately re- 
moved and so handled as not to become infected. It is 
seldom that a calf is infected with tuberculosis at birth. 

Contagious abortion results in the death of the un- 
developed young. In addition to the loss of the calf, 
the dam may become sterile. Drugs and 
remedies have been used for the disease, 
but it may be safely said that there is no real cure for 
abortion. 

To some extent the disease may be prevented and con- 
trolled by a proper system of management and sanitation. 
Treatment of The breeding operation of the herd should be 
abortion under Strict control. Great care should be 

exercised to see that abortion is not brought into the 
herd by the purchase of infected animals. Calves should 
be born in clean thoroughly disinfected quarters. All 
possible precautions should be taken to prevent the 
spread of the disease. 

157. Beef Cattle 

All cattle eventually make beef, if not condemned for 
tuberculosis or other disease. The growing of cattle 
Beef and the specially for beef, however, is a practice of 
ranges ^]^g mid-continent and the far West. A 

great part of the beef is produced on the large pasture 
areas known as ranges, although it may be fattened 
where grain is grown. The raising of beef animals in 
inclosed farms of ordinary size is also an important in- 
dustry, particularly in the corn-belt. The great beef 
production of Iowa and adjacent states is not a range 
enterprise. 



CATTLE 289 

Estimates for 191 7 by the United States Department 
of Agriculture gave the number of cattle other than 
milch cattle on farms as about 40,800,000. statistics of 
These cattle were estimated to have a total ^^^^ ^^^^^^ 
value of over $1,465,700,000. The four leading states 
in point of number of beef cattle are Texas, Nebraska, 
Iowa, and New Mexico. These four states have about 
36 per cent of the total of the United States. More 
than two-thirds of the beef cattle of the United States 
are west of the Mississippi River. 

The beef industry is rather highly specialized and may 
in general be divided into three phases : 

(i) The care and management of the calf from birth 
to time of weaning ; Points in the 

(2) The growth of the steer from weaning '"Rising of beef 
to an age and maturity sufficient for fattening ; 

(3) The fattening of the steer. 

Some parts of the country raise calves, others grow 

steers, and still others fatten them. Arizona, New 

Mexico, and western Texas raise calves which 

111 r rr^i Feeders 

are sold at about one year of age. They are 

sold to cattlemen on the eastern slope of the Rocky 

Mountains, particularly in eastern Colorado, Wyoming, 

and Montana, and North and South Dakota. The cattle 

are kept in this region for periods of one to two years. If 

in this time they become fat, they are sent directly to 

markets on the Missouri River or to Chicago. Should 

they not become fat, they are sold into the corn-belt as 

^'feeders." Here they are fed three to six months and 

then marketed. 

In Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California many 

calves are born, grown, and finished on the same farm. 



290 TOPIC 22 

Beef cattle are divided into three general classes, 
Butchering, Feeding, and Breeding, depending on the 
Market purpose for which they are to be used. To 

classes of meet the requirements of the butcher a beef 
animal should be low-set, blocky, rectangular 
in form, compact of body and broad and smooth in the 
back and loin. He should have quahty and be in good 
condition of flesh. 

158. The Beef Breeds 

The principal beef breeds are Shorthorn, Polled Dur- 
ham, Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, and Galloway. 

The Shorthorn had its origin in the northeastern part 

of England. Animals were first imported into this country 

about 1783. With respect to color this breed 
Shorthorn . i i . i ^ , . 

may be red, white, roan, or red-and-wmte 
spotted. The horns are small. Bulls of the breed weigh 
about 2300 and cows about 1800 pounds. The develop- 
ment of the hind-quarters is 
the strong feature of the 
breed. 

The Hereford is from south- 
western England. Animals 
„ , ^ were first im- 

Hereford 

ported to the 
United States about 181 7. 
The color is red with white face and underline, and white 
stripe on top of neck extending to top of the shoulder. 
They have a long curving characteristic horn. Bulls 
weigh about 2300 and cows 1800 pounds. The Hereford 
is a hardy breed, and has a particularly smooth well- 
developed shoulder. 





Angus 



CATTLE 291 

The Aberdeen Angus originated in Scotland. The 
breed is black and hornless. The animal is smooth- 
haired and round in body and hind-quarters. 

Males weigh 
about 2050 and females 
about 1550 pounds. 

The Galloway is also of 
Scotch origin. It is black and 
hornless. The 

... - Galloway 

hair IS longer 

and generally coarser than 

that of the Aberdeen Angus, and in conformation the 

animal is more square. Males weigh about 1875 pounds 

and females 1450 pounds. 

159. Management or the Beef Herd 

In the West, beef cattle are run on ranges in the higher 
areas in summer. As fall approaches they are moved to 
lower areas and in some cases graze all winter. Growing the 
Very little care is given them except that salt ^®^^ 
is provided occasionally. In the fall the cattle are 
rounded up and those ready to be sold are separated 
and sent to market. The cattle fat enough for beef 
usually weigh between 1000 and 3000 pounds. Those 
marketed for winter feeders are from 900 to 11 00 pounds 
in weight. Very Httle hay is fed in winter : about one 
ton a head is the ordinary allowance. 

Calves should ordinarily come as early in the spring as 
the cows can take care of them. Spring calves should 
be weaned the following fall. It is well to 

The calves 

leave calves with their dams as long as the 

grass is good. If good pasture is not available, the 



292 TOPIC 22 

calves are corralled and fed all the hay they desire during 
the winter. Clover and alfalfa hay are the best. 

When fall calves are raised, they need not be weaned 
before ten months of age ; they may be weaned on pasture 
instead of on hay. 

Winter feeds for the breeding herd usually consist of 
pastures, stubble-fields, straw, and hay. One ton of hay 
Winter to the COW in the winter as a supplement to 

feeding old grass or straw is the ordinary allowance. 

Very little corn is grown in the far West, therefore steers 
are fattened mostly on alfalfa or other hay. 

In the corn-belt, fattening is accompHshed for the most 

part on corn and hay. The amount of corn fed daily 

varies from fifteen to twenty pounds. On 
Fattening 

alfalfa and clover hay, steers make rapid 

gains and at low cost. Larger and more economical 
gains are usually secured if linseed meal, cottonseed 
meal, or gluten feed is fed supplementary to corn, 
rather than feeding corn as the sole concentrate. 

The '^feeders" are not accustomed to eating grain, 
and therefore should be brought to full feed gradually. 
Managing the From the beginning they may receive all the 
feeders \^^y ^]^gy desire. Two-year-old steers are the 

kind usually fed. The length of the feeding period ranges 
from four to six months. Daily gains of one and one- 
half pounds in winter and two pounds to two and one- 
half in summer are often obtained. The cheapest gains 
are made in summer. Under this system of fattening, 
hogs usually run with the steers and clean up the drop- 
pings, thus utilizing all the corn. With whole corn, one 
to three hogs may follow each steer, while one hog will 
clean up after two or three steers fed on ground corn. 



CATTLE 293 

REVIEW 

Name the types of cattle. 
What is the "native stock" of the country? 
Where did our cattle come from ? What is the scientific name ? 
What is a zebu ? 

Discuss the nature of the dairy cow. 
Where are dairy cattle most numerous ? 
Describe the general form and appearance of a dairy cow. 
What are the dairy breeds? Describe them. Where did they 
originate ? 

Give the points in a good dairy barn. 

What can you say about the performance of the dairy cow? 

Discuss the care of the calf. Why are so many calves sold for 

veal? 

State how dairy cows should be pastured and fed. 

What is the nature of tuberculosis? contagious abortion? 

Where are beef cattle grown? Why? 

What are the classes of beef cattle ? 

Name and describe the beef breeds. 

How is the beef herd managed ? 

What can you say about feeding for beef? 

Why are pigs such an important product where beef cattle are 
fattened with grain, but not so on the great ranges^ 



:? 



THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

What is the prevailing type of cattle in your region? 

How many breeds do you know ? 

Can you estimate accurately the weight of an anunal ? 

How are beef animals marketed in your part of the country ? 

How are the dairy products marketed ? 

Look up the last census reports on the cattle of your state and 
county. How do the figures of value compare with the value of 
other animals and with crops ? 1 :, xj 

Are there cow-testing associations within your knowledge ? How 
carefully do farmers test their cows ? 

Do the farmers of your acquaintance feed a balanced ration? 

What are the principal cattle feeds in your region ? 

Do your farmers have scales so that they can weigh feed, milk, 
and also the animals to determine gain in weight ? 



294 TOPIC 22 

Can you suggest improvements in the feeding practices ? 
Are there any specially constructed cattle or dairy barns or 
stables within your knowledge? Describe the one you like best. 

CLASS PROBLEMS 

If in a dairy section, let the pupils start a movement for a cow- 
testing association, if one does not already exist. 

The pupils should test the cows on their own farms. 

If in a beef region, the pupil should feed an animal, beginning as 
a calf, keeping record of the feed and the gain in weight. 

The school may well make a census of the cattle of the district, 
keeping count of the kinds and ages. 

The class may visit any good herds. 

Either on a near-by farm or at school, exercises should be held 
in judging and scoring. In some cases an animal may be led to 
the school grounds. Score-cards for all the classes of animals 
may be obtained from the breed associations, and may be found 
in bulletins and books. Apply to the county agent. 




X 



TOPIC 23 

SWINE 

Probably in no animal has the result of domestication 
been so marked as in the hog. Its origin is considered to 
have been from the wild hog or boar of Europe and Asia, 
which is still hunted. The wild boar is a swift and fero- 
cious animal, attacking men and dogs. 

The domestic hog is docile ; in some of its forms it has 
lost the powers of locomotion that would enable it to sur- 
vive in a state of nature. It has developed a characteris- 
remarkable power to lay on flesh, becoming ^^^^f^^^ 
so fat in some cases that its legs will barely 
support the body and the eyes are nearly buried. It 
has become a condensed round-barrelled animal, very 
unlike its rangy fierce ancestor. With these fat hogs 
one may contrast the razor-backs of the Southern States, 
which are run-wild forms of early introductions from 
Europe. 

The hog is known to zoologists as Sus scrofa. The 
genus Sus is named from the Latin word of the same form, 
meanmg hog or pig. The word scrofa in Latin The hog 
means a sow. The word swine is a plural ^" ^°°^°sy 
or collective noun. One never uses it for a single ani- 
mal. The word hog is generally used to denote these 
animals ; and pig is used for the young. The male is 
a boar ; the female a sow. A hog a few months old is 
called a shote. 

295 



296 TOPIC 23 

In farming, the hog is specially valuable because it 
Farm value consumes .wastes. It eats a great variety 
of the hog Qf fQQ(j greedily, and utilizes it in growth 
and to lay on fat. 

Because the hog is a scavenger and will subsist in the 
most filthy quarters, it is supposed that these conditions 
Hogs should are necessary to its welfare. Yet the hog 
be clean yields as readily to good care, sanitary quar- 

ters, well-chosen food, and cleanliness as do other animals. 
In fact, the modern swine-husbandry demands careful at- 
tention to breeding, management, housing, and feeding. 
The hog wallows in mud to keep cool, because he does not 
perspire as do the other farm animals ; but by nature he 
is not a filthy beast. 

160. Importance of Swine 

The United States has more hogs than any other three 
nations of the world. About 37 per cent of all the swine 
Hog-produc- in the world are grown in the United States, 
ing regions Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, and Indiana raise 
a little over one-third of all of the hogs produced in the 
United States. In general, the area of swine-production 
follows rather closely the region of corn-production. In 
value, swine constitute a little more than 8 per cent of the 
total value of all domestic animals in the United States. 

In Canada the number of swine reported in 191 1 was 
more than 3^ millions, with a value of nearly 27 millions 
of dollars. 

The hog is especially valuable in transforming into meat 
Uses by- the by-products of the farm. In cattle feed- 

products iQ^g^ Yie consumes corn that the cattle have 

failed to digest. In dairy districts he utilizes the skim 



SWINE 



297 



milk, buttermilk, and whey. He also makes use of table 
waste and garbage. Outside of the corn-belt, the number 
of hogs raised to the farm is largely determined by the 
amount and character of waste products and by-products 
to be utilized. 

Unlike other domestic animals, the hog is grown only 
for its flesh. Its hide is made into leather, however, but 
this is a secondary and incidental product. 

161. The Kinds of Hogs 

With respect to type, hogs may be divided into two dis- 
tinct classes : the lard type and the bacon type. 

Th£ lard type is an American product, adapted particu- 
larly to the highest use of the fattening qualities of Indian 
corn. It is essentially a corn-belt hog. This 
hog has a thick, deep, compact, smooth body ^^ ^^ 
which is symmetrically developed. The hams, back, and 
shoulders carry the most valu- 
able cuts and, therefore, from 
the market standpoint, these 
parts should be strongly de- 
veloped. High dressing per- 
centage and superior quality in 
the meat are the two factors 
that largely determine merit and 
selling prices. 

The bacon type, as compared with the lard type, is 
longer in the leg and body, less compact, has less thickness 
and depth of body, and is lighter in the shoul- The bacon 
der, neck, and jowl. The bacon hog should be ^°g 
long from the shoulder to the ham, and possess sufficient 
depth and thickness of body to indicate good constitution. 




Bacon and Lard Hogs 



298 


TOPIC 


23 


Following is a 


classification of the princips 


swine : 






Lard 




Victoria 


Berkshire 




Suffolk 


Poland- China 




Essex 


Duroc-Jersey 




Small Yorkshire 


Chester White 






Hampshire 




Bacon 


Cheshire 




Large Yorkshire 


Mulefoot 




Tamworth 




162. Breeds of Swine 

The Berkshire is the oldest of the improved breeds of 

swine. It had its origin in Berkshire County, England. 

It was first im- 
Berkshires . i • . . i 

ported into the 
United States about 1823. The 
color is black with white on face, 
feet, and tip of tail. The face is 
medium in length and slightly 
dished. The ears are carried erect. In good breeding 
condition, mature boars will weigh about 500 pounds and 
sows 400 pounds. The breed reaches maturity early; 
the typical animal is a good grazer, prolific, and produces 
pork of high quality. 

The Poland-China had its 
origin in Butler and Warren 
^ , . ^, . Counties, Ohio, in 

Poland-China ^ ^ ' ^ ' , 

the first half of the 
last century. The color is black, 
with white face, feet, and tip of 
tail. The face is straight and the ears droop over in the 
top one-third. The body is smoothly and heavily fleshed, 




Poland-China 



SWINE 299 

typifying the extreme lard type. The Poland-China is 
early maturing, but is sometimes criticized for carrying 
too high proportion of fat to lean. Mature males in 
breeding condition should weigh 500 pounds and females 
400 pounds. 

The Duroc- Jersey originated in New Jersey and New 
York. This breed is red in color, the most popular shade 
_.^.„^^.-_^^ being cherry. The j^^^^^.j^^^^y 

<-tj*p«^^s^^5eyi^^*W.^.. turity a boar should weigh 

Duroc- Jersey -^ 

about 600 pounds and a sow 
500 pounds. The breed is very prolific, and the sows are 
in general good milkers and mothers. They are also good 
grazers. Both the Poland-China and the Duroc- Jersey 
are the results of the admixture of different types of hogs. 
The Chester White originated in Chester County, 
Pennsylvania, in the early part of the nineteenth century. 
The color of the breed is white, the ^^ce -^^^^^^^^^j^.^^ 
straight or slightly dished, and the ears 
droop over about one-third the distance from the base. 
The Chester White reaches maturity early and the flesh 

is of good quality. Mature ^ ~~~~-^n 

boars weigh about 600 pounds (Y ^^ 

and mature sows about 450 .(1 ; ^L.^-^ 

pounds. Sows of this breed are \' 'fT^ \ u7 ,, 
strong milkers and good mothers, ^ iv/^" 

, - , , Tamworth 

and also strong breeders. 

The Tamworth comes from England. The color is red of 
varying shades. This breed yields bacon of exceptionally 



3CO 



TOPIC 23 



Tamworth 




high quality, the flesh being fine grained and the fat and 

lean well mixed. A mature boar should 

weigh 650 pounds and a sow 600 pounds. 

The Large Yorkshire originated in England. The color 

is white, the face is of medium length and but slightly 

, , . dished, the ears are 

Yorkshire 

erect. Mature 
boars weigh about 700 and 
mature sows about 600 pounds. 
The sows are prolific and good 

mothers. Large Yorkshire 

163. Breeding 

A pure-bred boar should head the herd. He should 
be possessed of strong health and vigor, being a good 
representative of the breed to which he be- 
longs, and having a bold carriage. 
The most desirable and profitable type of sow is one 
capable of being a good mother and that produces large 
litters of strong vigorous pigs regularly. She 
should have the conformation and quality of 
the particular breed. 

A young sow should not be bred before eight months 

of age. The sow carries her young 112 to 115 days. 

With proper care, feeding, and management 

the sow may be bred to produce two litters 

a year without injury. Good mothers should be retained 

as breeders for five or six years, if possible. 

Both sows and boars must be strong and well developed. 
Ordinary pasturage will not give them the proper devel- 
opment and constitution. They must be fed liberally, 
as explained further on. 



The boar 



The sow 



SWINE 301 

164. Housing 

There are two general classes of hog-houses : individual 
houses or cots, and large houses with separate pens. 

The best type to construct depends on the conditions 
and also the personal desires of the breeder. Hogs are 
affected by extremes of heat and cold, and Thehog- 
the character of their shelter will therefore ^°"^® 
be influenced by the locality. Light, ventilation, warmth, 
cleanliness, dryness, and convenience are the most im- 
portant considerations in the construction of hog-houses. 

Cement is used for floors and sometimes for partitions 
between pens. The construction should allow the free 
use of the hose or of buckets of water. 

Improved wallows should be provided for hot weather. 
These are made of cement so built that they 
can be drained or flushed and thereby kept ^ ^^ °^ 
clean. 

All hogs should be protected from draughts, as they 

take cold easily. This is specially true of little pigs. 

The pens should be so constructed as to re- 

. ,. ,. , r 1 1 Protection 

ceive direct sunlight at some part of the day, 

so that the beds may be dry, clean-smelling, and warm. 

165. Feeding and Management 

The brood sow should have food containing sufficient 
nourishment for the proper growth and development of 
her litters as well as of herself. She should Feeding the 
also be allowed plenty of exercise. If the ^°^ 
sows have the run of first-class pasture, such as alfalfa, 
clover, or rape, much grain will not have to be fed. Brood 
sows which are to raise two litters a year must be fed more 



302 TOPIC 23 

heavily than those that are bred but once. Corn does not 
furnish enough bone- and muscle-building material, and 
therefore should not be fed in large amounts to pregnant 
sows. 

Great care should be taken to see that the brood sow 
receives sufficient food to maintain a maximum milk 
supply for her litter. When the young pigs are two or 
three weeks old they should be given such feeds as skim 
milk and buttermilk, or tankage may be used mixed with 
middlings, shorts, or ground oats with the hulls removed. 
These feeds are a supplement to the mother's milk. 

Spring pigs after weaning, in addition to alfalfa, clover, 
or rape pasture should be fed about two pounds of con- 
Feeding the centrates to one hundred pounds of live 
pigs weight. In winter such pigs should be fed 

liberally of the finer parts of alfalfa or clover hay supple- 
mented by a reasonable supply of rich concentrates such 
as corn, barley, skim milk, tankage. 

The boar should be given free exercise to maintain him 
in a healthy condition, and sufficient food to keep him 
thrifty. 

In the last few weeks before slaughter, the pig should 
be given all the food it will consume. A good ration for 
Finishing the this period is ten parts corn to one part tank- 
feeding a^gg Pastures are very valuable at this time, 
as they tone up the system and lower the cost of produc- 
tion. 

1 66. Marketing 

The tendency for the last few years has been toward a 
Weights and lighter hog Carrying less fat. The most desir- 
markets ^]^\q weight seems to be about 200 to 2 50 pounds, 

although the market demand is at times for heavier hogs. 



SWINE 303 

These weights should be attained at six to twelve 
months of age, although the hog does not reach maturity 
until sixteen or more months old. This means rapid 
growth, resulting from good parentage, excellent care, and 
proper feeding. The animal must be fat, which indi- 
cates that fattening and growth must proceed at the 
same time. They are fatted in yards or pens in winter, or 
in summer they are given freedom of good pasture but with 
supplementary feed. 

167. Diseases 

Hog cholera is the most serious disease affecting swine. 
In the year ending March 31, 191 7, there were lost in the 
United States from hog cholera, 2,259,322 hogs, about 
4.5 per cent of the total number in the United States. 
It therefore affects very seriously the profits from swine- 
production, and every practicable means should be em- 
ployed to lessen its ravages. 

It is a highly contagious disease, caused by a specific 
germ. It spreads rapidly through a herd and no time 
should be lost in distinffuishins; it. Persons, 

, . , , 1 1 r 1 1 Hog cholera 

birds, horses, and dogs frequently carry the 
hog cholera germ from an infected area to healthy hogs. 
Hogs brought in from outside should not be placed with 
the remainder of the herd until they are known to be free 
of the disease. 

Hogs should not be permitted access to streams which 
may receive sewage from other hog yards. All hogs 
that die on the farm should be disposed of by burning, 
or by burying with quick lime. Hog-houses, lots, and 
pastures should be located away from streams and public 
roads. Houses should be exposed to the sunlight and be 



304 TOPIC 23 

SO constructed as to be readily cleaned and disinfected. 
Hog-cholera produces inflammation of the organs. Tem- 
perature is high. The skin is blotched. The animal 
staggers. Sometimes it bleeds at the nose. 

The disease may be prevented by treatment with anti- 
hog-cholera serum. In one method the serum is injected 
Treatment for alone ; in another method, the serum and a 
cholera virus are injected at the same time. The 

first method gives immunity to hog cholera for a period 
of three to four weeks ; by the second method immunity 
is for life. 

Hogs should always be kept free from parasites. There 
are dips for this purpose. If the wallows are properly 
constructed and cared for, there will be less infection 
of this kind. 

REVIEW 

What has been the effect of domestication on the hog? What 
is its origin ? 

Discuss the names of these animals. 

Why is the hog so important in farming ? 

Is the hog a dirty animal, as the word is usually understood? 

What is the extent and the geography of swine-husbandry in 
North America? 

For what purpose are swine raised ? 

Describe the Berkshire, Poland-China, Chester White, Tam- 
worth. 

State some of the essentials in breeding the hog. 

Give your idea of housing conditions for swine. 

Why do hogs wallow ? Are artificial wallows ever made ? 

What do you say about the feeding of hogs ? pasturing ? 

Name the marketing demands. How are hogs fattened ? 

Discuss hog cholera. 

What do you say about parasites? 



SWINE 305 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Look up the census for the swine population of your state and 
county. Are there more recent estimates of the numbers? 

What are the breeds? For what kind of market products are 
they mostly grown ? 

From what part of the animal is bacon derived? ham? pork 
chops? lard? 

For what purpose is pigskin leather used ? 

Describe the general method of handling swine in your region. 
Do they ''follow" the cattle? What is the system of feeding and 
pasturage ? 

Are there any modern sanitary hog-houses in your vicinity? 
wallows ? 

Is any attention given to a balanced ration? Or are the hogs 
merely fed what happens to be on hand or to be left ? 

How long do your farmers keep their hogs before turning them 
off to market ? 

What are the marketing facilities and conditions in your region ? 
Are the animals sold by live weight ? 

How are live hogs taken from field to field or one place to an- 
other? Are they driven, led, or transported? 



CLASS PROBLEMS 

On a near-by farm a judging contest should be arranged using the 
score-card. 

The class may make a hog census of the school district. 

A pig club may be organized. Each pupil or member raises a 
pig of known parentage, keeping track of feeds, costs, and gains in 
weight. 



TOPIC 24 

SHEEP AND GOATS 

Once sheep were reared on small farms and housed 
in barns, much as are other domestic animals ; but with 
the opening of the Great West, sheep-raising took on 
a new phase, being developed in immense flocks on wild 
unfenced ranges. The range method is also character- 
istic of New Zealand, Australia, and other parts of the 
world. 

The sheep is essentially an animal of cheap, half-wild, 
or rough lands. This is not because the animals do not 
When sheep thrive on the richer better-tilled lands, but 
are useful because they can be utilized on the other 
class, leaving the more productive areas to other uses. 
In the better farming regions sheep are usually only an 
adjunct to other farming, although they may be very 
profitable. However, the best sheep are reared only 
under good feeding and care ; and even in the sheep- 
ranching, the breeding-stock is given very careful con- 
sideration. 

Sheep are of the genus Ovis ; the species is 0. arics. 
The origin of the domestic sheep is in doubt. It probably 
The genus developed from one or two wild species in- 
and species habiting the Eurasian continent. The male 
sheep is called a buck and the female a ewe. Young 
sheep are lambs. 

306 



SHEEP AND GOATS 307 

168. Geography of Sheep-Husbandry 

Of the total sheep of the world, the United States 
produces about one- twelfth. Russia, Austraha, and Ar- 
gentina each raise about one-eighth of the Geography 
world's supply. The five leading sheep- of sheep- 
growing states are Wyoming, Montana, "^ ^^ ^ 
Ohio, New Mexico, and Idaho. Wyoming and Montana 
together raise about one-fifth of the total number in the 
United States. 

The Canadian sheep population in 191 1 was something 
over two million head, with a valuation of $10,700,000. 

Sheep by nature are adapted to grazing over wide areas 
and on a variety of herbage. They do better on short 
fine grasses, but will consume coarse forage where sheep 
to advantage. They will eat considerable *^^^^® 
brush, and assist in ridding land of weeds. Sheep are 
specially adapted to grazing on land of comparatively 
low value, cut-over timber land, waste hillsides, and 
broken pasture. They also utilize rough feeds, making 
them over into the marketable products, wool and 
mutton. 

169. Classes of Sheep 

Sheep may be classified as wool producers or mutton 
producers. They may also be grouped on the length 
of the wool staple. The fine-wooled sheep wool and 
(which might also be called short-wooled) ^^^^^^ 
have wool as short as 2^ inches, and the long-wooled as 
long as 16 inches. 

As to quality of fleece, the common breeds may be 
classed as follows : 



)8 


TOPIC 24 




I 


2 


3 


Fine-wool 


Medium-wool 


Long-wool 


American Merino 


Dorset 


Cotswold 


Delaine Merino 


Hampshire 


Leicester 


Rambouillet Merino 


Oxford 

Shropshire 

Southdown 

Tunis 

Cheviot 


Lincoln 



The fine-wool breeds are maintained primarily for the 
production of wool, with mutton as a secondary considera- 
tion. The mutton breeds, on the other hand, are grown 
with the production of flesh as the primary aim and wool 
as a secondary object. The mutton breeds include classes 
two and three. 

Like the dairy cow, the fine-wooled breeds are angular 
in conformation. This type of sheep is less compact and 
The " fine- is not as thickly fleshed in the back, loin, 
wools " aj^(j igg of mutton as the mutton sheep. The 

wool is fine, dense, carries considerable oil, and is closely 
crimped. 

The mutton type is comparable in form to that of the 
beef animal. It is more blocky, smoother, more thickly 
Mutton fleshed over the back, loin, and leg, and in 

breeds general is more compact than the fine-wool 

type. The wool is not as dense nor as fine as that of the 
others. 

The weight of fleece varies greatly. In its natural 
condition, as it comes from the animal, a fleece will weigh 
lo to 2o pounds, sometimes much more, often much 
less. 



SHEEP AND GOATS 



309 



Merino 




Merino 



170. Some or the Breeds of Sheep 

The American Merino was developed from the Spanish 
Merino. It is a small breed, producing a superior quality 
of fine, strong wool. Rams weigh 140 to 175 
pounds and ewes 90 to 125 pounds. The 

skin is considerably folded or 
wrinkled. The fleece covers 
the entire body except the nose 
and hoofs. The fleece usually 
shows a length of two and one- 
half inches for a year's growth. 
The rams are horned ; the ewes 
are hornless. 

The Rambouillet is the largest of the fine-wool breeds. 
While most attention has been given to 
fleece, considerably more size is attained in ^^ °"^ 
this breed than in the American Merino. The fleece of the 
Rambouillet varies consider- -: ~ 

■>-i .' X 

ably in length (about 3 in.) 
and fineness, but is usually 
quite dense. The rams have 
horns ; the ewes are hornless. 
The Rambouillet is a Merino 
type, originated in France. 
Rams weigh about 225 to 250 
pounds and ewes 150 to 170 
pounds. 

The Shropshire had its origin in England. The mature 
ram weighs about 225 pounds and the ewe 155 
pounds. The head is wide and short, and the ^^'°P'^^'^ 
face varies in color from brown to almost black. The legs, 



^rfS5? 




Shropshire Ram 



3IO TOPIC 24 

where not wooled, are the same color. In form this breed is 
very smooth and compact of body. In weight, length, and 
fineness of wool, the breed ranks high. The breed is well 
wooled up over the poll and down below the eyes. It has 
no horns. 

The Hampshire also originated in England. This breed 
is the largest of the middle-wool class. Rams weigh 
about 250 pounds and ewes 190 pounds. 
The face and legs are black and the head 
large with a tendency toward a roman nose. The breed 
is commonly wooled only over the crown. It is hornless. 
The Dorset has face and legs white. Both males and 
females have horns. Rams weigh about 225 pounds 
and ewes about 165 
pounds. The fleece 
is more open and coarser than 
that of the Shropshire. The 
strong feature of this breed is 
its early breeding habit com- 
bined with good milking quali- 
ties. This breed is particularly 
adapted to the production of 

winter or ^'hothouse" lambs. It is an English breed. 
The Lincoln is the most compactly built of the long- 
wool breeds. Rams weigh about 350 pounds and ewes 
about 275 pounds. The face and legs are 
white. The wool is of great length (8 in. 
for one year's growth) and has a characteristic curl at the 
end. The breed is hornless. It is of English origin. 
Tunis sheep are from North Africa. They are em- 
ployed to some extent in this country for the 
rearing of winter lambs, as the animals mate 




SHEEP AND GOATS 311 

in warm weather. They are a broad-tailed sheep ; fleece 
soft and fine, with a staple about 3 inches long ; usually 
hornless ; face and legs brownish or yellowish ; ears 
lopping; weight 120 to 150 pounds. 

171. Breeding 

The breeding of sheep presents no special difficulties. 
The lambs are single, although twins and sometimes 
triplets occur. A ewe should not be bred Producing the 
when less than one year old. It is best to young 
have the lambs born in early spring. 

The period of gestation in ewes is 145 to 150 days. It 
is desirable that only pure-bred rams be used. Whether 
the ram should be allowed to run with the breeding flock 
depends on circumstances. 

The most general method followed by farmers is to mate 
the ewes in September and October, the lambs being 
born in February and March. These lambs will be ready 
for market about July first if grain is fed. 

Another method is that foflowed in the production of 
lambs for spring market. Under this system mating takes 
place in July and August, the lambs being born in Decem- 
ber and January. Breeds such as the Dorset and Tunis, 
which mate in warm weather, should be used for this 
purpose. 

A third system is that followed in the production of 
winter or ''hothouse" lambs. Mating occurs in April, 
May, June, and July and lambs are dropped ^j^^ so-called 
from September to the middle of December, hothouse 
The breeds best suited to the production of ^^ 
"hothouse" lambs are the Dorset, Tunis, and Rambouil- 
let. Ewes of these breeds may be mated with rams 



312 TOPIC 24 

of the medium-wool class. The so-called hothouse 
lamb is reared and fed in warm quarters in winter, being 
ready for market as a choice product in the late winter 
or early spring. 

172. Feed and Management 

The ram should be given plenty of exercise and fed in 
such a way as to keep him in good condition, but not fat. 
Feeding the A heavier grain ration is required during the 
ram breeding season than at other times. Clover 

and alfalfa hay are the best roughages for a ram. It 
is desirable that succulence be supphed, when not on 
pasture, as roots or silage. 

Blue-grass pasture is one of the best for sheep. Forage 
crops may be used, but more labor, care, and expense are 
involved. In the summer and autumn no 
as urage gj-^in need be fed in addition to pasture, ex- 
cept to lambs. While in pasture sheep should be provided 
with shade, water, and salt. 

Winter feeding should be such as to produce strong 
vigorous lambs and at the same time keep the wool in 
Feeding in g^od condition. Alfalfa or clover hay, straw, 
winter qj. cornstalks are the usual roughages. 

Clover or alfalfa hay may be the sole ration fed until 
lambing time approaches. If the roughage consists 
largely of straw or cornstalks, a nitrogenous concentrate 
should be fed in addition. It is also desirable to add some 
succulence to the ration in the form of roots or 
silage. 

Each of the following rations contains approximately 
Rations for the amount of nutrients required for 125- 
ewes ^ pound to 1 50-pound ewes : 





SHEEP AND 


GOATS 




I 


2 


2 lb. 


alfalfa or cowpea hay 


I lb. oat straw 


2 lb. 


com silage 


2 lb. corn silage 


Jib. 


shelled corn 


^ lb. oil meal 
i lb. corn 



3^3 



Profit or loss in sheep husbandry is in a large measure 
dependent on the size of the lamb crop ; therefore the 
shepherd should be on hand at lambing time care of the 
to give any assistance necessary either to the lambs 
lamb or ewe. The ewes should be so fed as to furnish 
a plentiful supply of milk. Lambs may be safely weaned 
at twelve to sixteen weeks of age. 

Lambs should be docked (tail cut off) when ten to 
fourteen days of age. This operation adds to the appear- 
ance of the lamb, keeps the animal cleaner, and raises 
the selling price. It should be performed on a bright 
cool day. 

Ordinarily lambs should be ready for market when three 

to five months of age. Such lambs make the most rapid 

gain from a given amount of feed and at a less „ , . 

1 1 r . rr.! . 1M . Marketing 

cost to the pound of gram. There is likewise 

less loss from disease and accident when marketed early. 

Lambs should be marketed in the spring because higher 

prices are ordinarily obtained at that time. 

Care should be taken not to house sheep too closely. 

They are very hardy animals if the fleece is kept dry in 

cold weather, and if the yard is well drained 

1 1 r 11 1 Shelter 

so that the feet are also dry or at least not 

in mire. 

Shearing usually takes place after lambing, in late 

spring or early summer. It should be undertaken on a 



314 TOPIC 24 

warm day, that the sheep may not take cold. Shearing 

Shearing the m^y be performed by hand or by means of 

sheep power machines. 

The winter feeding of range-bred western sheep is a 

large industry in parts of the middle and eastern country. 
In this way the farmer finds use for his 
roughage and makes eroployment for winter. 

The sheep are marketed, usually in a body, in spring. 

The farmer has good use for the manure. 

173. Parasites and Diseases 

Sheep should be dipped to free them from lice, ticks, 
and other parasites of the skin. This operation may be 
most easily and thoroughly performed shortly 
after shearing. Any standard dip solution 
may be used and every sheep should be treated. A 
second treatment about twenty-four days after the first 
is advisable. 

Stomach worms often affect lambs, which become pale, 
thin, and weak. They may die, or continue to live for a 
Combating ^^^^ time in poor condition and not make 
the stomach proper growth. There is no satisfactory 
^^^"^ treatment for this disease. The most feasible 

method of combating it is by prevention. Rotation of 
pasture is the practicable means of control. If pastures 
are so arranged as to permit the flock to be alternated 
every ten days on two or more fields, the infection with the 
worm can be partially controlled. The dry-lot method 
consists in feeding lambs in sheds and yards until they 
are weaned, when they are put on clean, fresh pasture ; 
this is a means of control. 

Sheep are specially subject to internal parasites. They 



bHl^t.J:' AJNU UUAib 



315 



tv-^ 




Milch Goat 



should be kept on uninfected pastures, with care to see 

that the water does not come from the direction of 

infected flocks. 

174. Goats 

To most Americans the goat is a hardy and vagrant 
animal of alleys and vacant lots, living on what it can 
find ; yet in many countries it is much prized The goat in 

as a heavy pro- America 
ducer of excellent milk. It 
will thrive under conditions in 
which cows cannot be kept, 
particularly in rough and moun- 
tainous countries. In some 
countries goats are reared 
largely for the pelts, for the 
making of leather. 
The goat is one of the oldest of the domesticated 
animals, being well known in Bible times. To zoologists 
the common goat is Capra hirais, but its what the goat 
origin is undetermined. It is supposed to ^^ 
have descended from the wild goat of Persia. 
Angora goat, somewhat raised 
in this country for its fleece as 
well as for meat, is Capra an- 
gorensis. Its origin is also in 
doubt ; not unlikely it has de- 
veloped from the same wild 
stock as the common milch 
goat. The Angora goat derives its name from the vilayet 
or province of Angora, in Asia Minor. 

The milch goat is of several breeds. Among the 
Spanish- speaking people of Texas and the Southwest the 



The 




Angora Goats 



3i6 TOPIC 24 

goat is well known in breeds or types apparently pe- 
culiar to the region. The Swiss breeds are 

Breeds ^ ^ , ^ 

perhaps best known. 

The animal is very prolific, the young coming com- 
monly in pairs or in threes, and it breeds often. Good 
Rearing the care in clean quarters, with sweet hay supple- 
goat mented by kitchen vegetables and oats, 
produce excellent results in milk. A few goats will 
supply a family with milk the year round. There are 
certain points in their management that should be under- 
stood before the raising of them is seriously undertaken. 
Persons in suburbs and with small holdings are likely 
to find the goat to be very useful. The hide is valuable 
as the source of morocco and kid leather. 

REVIEW 

What part do sheep play in agriculture? 

What is the genus? origin? 

Name the leading sheep states and regions. 

On what kinds of land do they graze ? 

What are the classes of sheep ? 

Compare the wool and mutton types. 

What is the length of staple ? 

Name and describe the leading breeds. 

What can you say about the breeding of sheep? When are 
lambs dropped ? 

Discuss the feeding and pasturage. 

What is the docking of lambs? 

When are the animals sheared? How? How much do fleeces 
weigh ? 

What is meant by '' hothouse" lambs? 

How are sheep housed ? 

Why are they often fed far from the place where they are bred ? 

Name important diseases or parasites. 

What do you know about goats? 



SHEEP AND GOATS 317 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

To what extent are sheep grown in your state and county ? 

What conditions determine whether more or less sheep shall be 
kept? 

Are dogs a serious menace? What laws does your state make 
for the control of dogs, and the payment to the sheep owner for 
losses by them ? 

Name the breeds or types of sheep in your region. 

What is the market for your sheep? 

What is the cost of rearing sheep as compared with that of 
raising hogs ? 

Are there any sheep barns or sheds in your part of the county? 
Describe. 

Describe the meat products and "cuts" of the sheep carcass 

What is tallow? 

CLASS PROBLEMS 

On a near-by farm, or with a small flock driven to the school 
grounds, make a judging contest, using the score-card. 

Make a census of the sheep in the district, determining the 
numbers and the breeds, and how many are lambs. 

Sheep clubs are sometimes organized. The purpose may be 
to learn the ways of handling and feeding a few sheep, with costs ; 
or to feed for a time for market (mutton club) ; or to produce a 
certain clip of wool (wool club). 



TOPIC 25 

POULTRY 

The largest part of the poultry and poultry products 
is produced in small or moderate-sized flocks on farms. 
This condition will probably exist indefinitely, as the 
proportion of special poultry establishments increases 
only very gradually. 

For this reason, most of the study of poultry should 
be directed to the improvement of the farm flock. As 
Poultry on ^ country becomes more thickly settled the 
the farm poultry industry assumes a more prominent 

relation to other animal production. This is the con- 
dition in the United States, where the industry is certain 
to become more important. 

The number of all poultry or fowls on farms in the 
United States in 1910 was 295,880,190, of which 
statistics of 280,345,133 were chickens, 3,688,708 turkeys, 
poultry 2,906,525 ducks, 4,431,980 gecsc, 1,765,031 

guinea fowls, 2,730,994 pigeons, 6458 peafowls, 5361 
ostriches. More than 5I- million farms had poultry. 
The total number of farms was 6^ millions ; so that 
poultry was kept and reported on about five-sixths of all 
the farms in the United States. 

The total value of the fowls was $154,663,220, which 

exceeds the value of the products of the anthracite coal 

mines, and much exceeds the output of the 
Value . ' . ^ 

iron mmes. The value of eggs produced in 

1909 was $306,689,000, or about twice the value of the 

318 



POULTRY 



319 



fowls themselves ; it exceeded in value the combined 
output of copper, gold, and other precious metals, and 
building-stone quarries. Aside from all this is the value 
of fowls and eggs produced on home lots in villages and 
cities, which is very large in the aggregate. 

The "number of poultry'^ in Canada in 191 1 was 
31,793,261, of a total value of $14,653,773. Of the total 
number 29,773,457 were hens and chickens, 
the remainder bemg reported as turkeys, 
geese, ducks. The number of poultry to 100 acres of 




Shapes of Eggs (M. C. Kilpatrick, O. State Univ.) 

improved land in 191 1 was 65I, and the average number 
to the farm was 44. The ''average value per bird'' was 
46 cents. 

The raising of poultry in establishments not connected 
with a farm is a special business. Only in the hands of a 
skillful poultryman, and with an unusually gpe^iai poui- 
good market, does such a business pay in try estabiish- 
competition with the cheaper product from °^^° ^ 
farms. A superior grade of fowl and eggs is possible 



320 TOPIC 25 

by such specialization, and the numbers of fowls may be 
sufficient to insure a continuous supply so that a par- 
ticular market may be controlled. The eggs may also be 
graded into sizes, shapes, and colors for the market, when 
there is a large number from which to choose ; for eggs 
are not uniform, as the accompanying illustration shows. 

175. The Egg and the Fowl 

An egg is an inert thing, apparently as lifeless as a 
stone. A hen sits on it for a time, but there is no external 
change ; then there is a slight sound inside 
as of escape, the shell is broken, and a living 
thing comes forth, furry and fluffy, and takes its place 
in the world. It runs and eats and sleeps ; feathers take 
the place of fur ; it is soon able to fly ; it lays eggs like 
the one from which it came ; and the wonderful round of 
life is complete. 

If we were to look inside the fertile egg in the process 
of incubation or hatching, we should find a dense part or 
Fertile and germ developing in the yolk, with fibers 
infertile eggs running out from it through the yolk as stays 
or guys. Blood-arteries develop after a few days, as 
part of the hatching process. From the germ the chick 
develops. The yolk and also the white are food for the 
growing chick, much as the starch and other stored 
materials in the seed arc food for the young plant. 

Before these changes take place, the contents of the 
egg are prized as human food. If the egg is unfertilized, 
no male having been in the flock, it will never hatch. 
In such an egg incubation changes do not take place 
in warm weather (as they do in fertile eggs even when 
not under a hen) and the egg does not so soon develop 



POULTRY 321 

blood-rings or "spoil." Male birds should be allowed 
in flocks only when it is desired to produce eggs for hatch- 
ing. Removal of the males makes no difi;erence in the 
number or quality of eggs that the hens produce. 

Poor eggs are discovered by the process of ''candling," 
which is looking through them to a light. Usually a 
lamp is placed inside a box, in the side of 
which at the level of the flame is a hole large 
enough to hold the egg. If the room is dark, one gets a 
clearer view of the egg as one looks through it toward 
the light. A good egg looks perfectly clear, with no rings, 
or spots, or lines, and the contents are not shrivelled away 
from the shell. 

176. Origins 

The common fowl or hen belongs to the genus Gallus, 
comprising species of birds from far eastern Asia. The 

hen, G. domesticUS, is Poultry in 

unknown in a truly zoology 
wfld state. Probably it is derived 
from one or more of the jungle- 
fowl of India and Malaya, which 
are most nearly represented in the 
domestic fowl by the fighting-cock. 
The domestication of these wild 
fowls apparently began in remote 

Red Jungle-Fowl, supposed .• •. ttt i ^ r i ^i 

to be one of the wild antiquity. We do not find the 

originals of the common hen mentioned in the Bible, how- 
chicken. Ml . r n< 1 

ever, until the time of Solomon. 
The pheasants belong to the same family as 

Ph6d.S8.IltS 

the domestic fowl, and are known as gallina- 
ceous birds, although they are not of the genus Gallus. 




322 



TOPIC 25 



Guinea-hen 



The guinea-fowl, an African bird, has been reared by man 

for centuries, yet it is not really domesticated or tamed. 
It likes to roam far and wide, and to make 
its nest and rear its young in seclusion. The 

guinea-fowl is prized for 

the flesh, and the eggs 

are sometimes used for 





GUINEA-FOWL 



Turkey Gobbler 



Turkey 



cooking. It is a gallinaceous bird, Numida meleagris, 
the second word referring to the speckled character. 

The turkey is native to North America, and in many 
parts of the country the species is still wild. The com- 
mon turkey is Meleagris americana, but it is 
supposed that the white-marked Mexican 
turkey (M. mexicana) has contrib- 
uted something to the domesticated 
races. 

Geese are of several species, but the 
common domestic goose is derived 
from the European Anser 
cinereus (cinereus = ash- 
colored). The American wild goose {Branta canadensis) 
is sometimes bred under captivity but does not become 
really domesticated ; if left to itself it usually flies away 
sooner or later. 




Goose 



Pekin Duck 




POULTRY 323 

It is supposed that the common domestic duck is a 
form of the mallard, Anas boschas, which is well known 
in a wild state and is 

, . Duck 

prized by sportsmen. 

177. Place on the Farm 

Poultry occupies a unique place 
on the farm. More often than not 
it is cared for by the -nr«„ ,. „;c. 

Pekin Drake , ^ . Why poultry is 

grandmother, the wife useful on 
or the children, and sometimes it is only ^^^^ 
tolerated by the men. Many farm flocks are allowed to 
shift for themselves in the warmer months, and are given 
indifferent quarters and care in winter. Often they must 
prove themselves profitable before being accorded proper 
attention, instead of receiving good care so that they 
may have a chance to become profitable. 

Poultry fits well into the farm activities. A hundred 
or more fowls can be as easily cared for, as a daily 
chore, as the usual number of horses, cows, sheep, or 
pigs. The investment on the poultry is much lower, 
and the returns are usually greater in proportion than 
from the other live-stock. This is possible partly 
because fowls pick up waste grain and refuse which 
has no salable value. 

178. Farm Breeds 

Judging from appearance, any breed of poultry is 
suitable for the farm. This is not the case, however. 
There are three general types of fowls : meat, egg, and 
general-purpose types. 



324 



TOPIC 25 




White Leghorn 



Egg breeds 



The meat type of bird is large, heavily feathered, 
clumsy, and slow. It eats ravenously, but is too lazy 
Meat breeds to forage to advantage ; it is an indifferent 
of fowls layer, with a strong tendency to broodiness. 

The Asiatic breeds (Bramas, Cochins, and 
Langshans) are the best examples of this 
type. 

The egg type is the opposite of the meat 
type in general features. It is small, wiry, 
active, nervous, and close- 
feathered, too timid to forage far for food, 
but a high flyer and difficult to keep within fixed bounds. 
As the name indicates this type is a good layer, especially 
in spring and summer, and in winter under the most 
favorable conditions. It makes an unreliable setter and 
mother. The type is best 
represented by the Medi- 
terranean class, as Leg- 
horns, Minorcas, An- 
conas. 

The general-purpose 
type is so named because 
General-pur- it combines 
pose breeds ^he best qual- 
ities of both the meat and 
egg breeds. It is medi- 
um-sized, fairly active, 
gentle, heavily feathered, 
and small-combed. It is neither timid nor lazy, and 
consequently is a good forager. It rivals and often excels 
the egg t3^e in production, especially in winter and fall 
when eggs are highest in price, and is a good setter and 




Single- Comb Brown Leghorn 



POULTRY 



325 



mother. The type is best represented by the American 
class, the Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, Wyandotte. 
Of the three types, the general-purpose is unquestion- 
ably the best suited to usual farm conditions. The 
mixed fowls often found on farms are gen- powis for 
erally of this type, but lack breeding. Pure- farms 
bred stock can be obtained so easily and cheaply, and is 
so much more productive, all conditions being the same, 
that it is very poor economy on the farm to be without it. 



\^;:^if/f^\ ^ 






Barred Plymouth 
Rock 





Rhode Island Red 



Wyandotte 



Specialists in poultry-raising will choose other breeds. 
The white Leghorn is now very popular as an egg-laying 
breed. 

There are other types of fowls grown by fanciers for 
exhibition and for their ornamental qualities or as curi- 
osities. Of such are the bantams or dwarfs, Crevecceurs 
(black fowls), and the interesting Polish breeds or sub- 
breeds. 

179. How TO Start 

There are three ways of starting a poultry flock : 

1. with eggs for hatching ; 

2. with day-old chicks ; 

3. with mature stock. 



Beginning 



326 



TOPIC 25 



Each method has its advantages. Eggs for hatching 
or day-old chicks (i or 2) provide the cheapest way, but 
they must be hatched by a hen or incubator, and reared 
perhaps in a brooder. This method means starting in 
early spring. Purchased eggs may not hatch as well 

as expected nor do they 
always produce the type 
of bird that is wanted. 

A brooder is a structure 
or little building to pro- 
tect the chicks and keep 
them warm, taking the 
place of the mother. 
Sometimes a little ''run " or exercising yard is attached to it. 
With mature stock the start can be made at any time 
of year. Also they show their breed and breeding, and 
whether they are rugged and strong. From this flock 
of known merit, eggs are obtained to continue the stock. 




Brooder, with a Covered Run or 
Yard (Kilpatrick) 



180. Feeding the Flock 

The important practices in feeding are regularity, a 
balanced ration, and proper quantity of food. A fowl 
The feeding of appreciates having meals on time as well 
poultry g^g (jQgg ^Yie hired man. A marked varia- 

tion in the amount or kind of food, and especially in 
the time of feeding, disarranges the normal production. 

A balanced ration is one that contains the proper pro- 
portions of different food constituents to produce normal 
development. These constituents are con- 
tained in varying amounts in the different 
foods. Consequently the food must be combined in 
correct proportions. 



Ration 



POULTRY 327 

The constituents are protein, which is contained prin- 
cipally in meat and the germ of grain ; carbohydrates, 
in corn and all grains ; and ash, found in bone, oyster- 
shell, grain, and green food. 

It is possible to obtain an effective balanced ration 
with corn or similar grain, meat, cabbage, oyster-shell, 
and water. Usually, however, it is better to feed a 
mixture of grains, chiefly corn and wheat, morning and 
night, and at noon a mash containing ground grain and 
meat. The Cornell ration and method of feeding, now 
much used, is as follows : 

Cornell Ration for Laying Hens 
Scratch Grain Mash Mixture 

(Formula 200) (Formula 201) 

500 lbs. cracked corn 100 lbs. wheat bran 

200 lbs. barley 100 lbs. wheat middlings 

200 lbs. wheat 100 lbs. corn meal 

100 lbs. heavy oats 100 lbs. ground oats or ground 

barley 
Fed by hand morning and after- ^^^ ^^^^ j^^eat scrap 
noon in deep straw litter _ j^^g ^^\^ 

Fed dry in hoppers 
Feed according to the appetite of the birds ; no definite rule 
can be given. Feed scantily of grain in the morning and give all 
the grain they will eat in the afternoon in time to find it before 
dark. There should be no grain in the litter at noon ; when found, 
it indicates feeding too much in the morning. In general, feed 
by weight 2-3 parts of grain to 2 parts of mash. When the birds 
are laying heavily they should consume a larger amount of mash. 

A very simple although effective farm ration consists 
of corn and wheat fed in a deep bed of straw morning 
and night ; and at noon meat in the form of simple farm 
slaughter-house refuse, fresh meat of horse, ^^*^°° 
cow, sheep, pig or game, or green cut bone. Skim-milk 



328 TOPIC 25 

is also a substitute for meat. Fresh water and oyster- 
shell should always be present, and cabbage, beets, 
sprouted oats, or the like fed daily. 

Over-feeding is as harmful as under-feeding. A small 
quantity of grain should be fed in the morning to keep 
Feeding too the fowls hungry and active, and a larger 
heavily quantity at night to satisfy their hunger 

and meet their needs. 

A working formula is 6 to 8 quarts of heavy grain to 

loo hens daily, and nearly as much mash. If no mash 

is fed, more grain must be given accordingly. 

One ounce of uncooked meat a day is all a 

hen should receive. This quantity may be increased 

several times if the meat is cooked. 

Hens require more food when laying heavily than when 
inactive. They often act hungry when sufficiently fed. 
The best indication of appetite is the degree of activity. 
If the fowls scratch deep holes in the htter and are active 
between feedings, they are making good use of their food, 
and could probably use more. 

i8i. Housing 

The housing is very simple. Three essential condi- 
tions cover the problem : plenty of light, warmth in 
Shelter winter, dryness. The size, type, design, and 

mode of construction are of more value in the 
eyes of the farmer than in those of the hen. 

Light can be obtained with plenty of glass windows, 
preferably in the south and east sides of the building. 

Warmth is assured by tight construction, low roofs 
preferably packed with straw, and hens in the propor- 
tion of one for every 3J to 4 square feet of floor space. 



POULTRY 



329 



Dryness is insured by building on high well-drained 
ground, by having the floor, — whether earth, board, or 
cement, — well above the outside level, and by proper 
ventilation. 

The ventilation may be provided through a coarse 

cloth curtain or by any of the usual mechanical devices ; 

but a simple and very satisfactory method is „ , . 
•11 . 1 1.1 ^^®sh air 

to ventilate by openmg the glass windows. 

This is best accomplished by fastening the windows at 
the bottom so they may swing inward a few inches at 
the top ; the window 
opening is boxed in at 
the sides so that all the 
incoming air must work 
upward. In this way 
there is little danger of 
a harmful draft reach- 
ing the hens. The out- 
ward movement of air is 
slow, and the pens do 
not lose their warmth. 

Under the foregoing 
conditions there will be no trouble in keeping the hens 
healthy and contented. 

In equipping the pens with nests, roosts, and feed-boxes, 
the arrangement should be convenient, all parts above the 
floor so as to give the hens the entire floor space. 

Pens should be kept reasonably clean, otherwise they 

become damp, and breed disease and vermin. A box 

for coal ashes, road-dust, or plaster should be 

•11- 1 • 1 1 1 t 1 Cleanliness 

provided m which the hens may dust them- 
selves. In this way they will rid themselves of body 




One Form of Pen or Colony House 
(C. H. Burgess, Mich. Agric. Col.) 



330 TOPIC 25 

lice to a large extent. Perches should be treated with 
a good commercial spray every few months, and oftener 
in summer, for lice. 

182. Mating 

Perhaps the most important single operation in con- 
nection with poultry-keeping is providing proper mates. 
Selection for This includes the selection of a group of in- 
breeding dividuals which possess the health, strength, 
and inherited ability to lay a profitable number of eggs, 
and to produce young that will be equally capable. 
Great pains should be taken in selecting the individuals. 

The best indications in selecting the individuals for 
Points in a breeding are (i) activity ; (2) appearance; 
good breeding (3) shape ; (4) type. These points may now 
be considered more fully. 

(i) The activity : a strong healthy bird is doing 
something most of the time, as hunting food, crowing 
or singing, early to rise and late to perch. 

(2) The appearance : the healthy bird has a bright 
look, comb red, eyes glistening, and plumage sleek. 

(3) Shape : the strong bird looks rugged and stocky, 
has a wide back and deep breast and body. 

(4) The type : it is well to select for mating those 
birds that show the most uniform size and color of the 
breed; although birds of various colors and sizes may 
be as profitable individually, they are not so collectively. 
The uniform product in eggs, in market poultry, or in 
live birds will command a better price. 

With general-purpose breeds one male for every 
fifteen hens is the usual allotment. There should be 
fewer hens with each male of heavy or meat breeds. 



POULTRY 331 

183. Hatching and Brooding 

Natural hatching and brooding are giving place more 
and more to artificial methods. With a small flock, 
hens can be used to very good advantage Hatching the 
for hatching the eggs and brooding the chicks. ®sss 
Hens understand better than man does, and they can 
hatch stronger chicks. However, it is doubtful whether, 
on the whole, the natural method of brooding is any better 
than the artificial, especially when the flock of chicks is 
large. 

Eggs for setting or for incubation should be fresh and 
have been kept cool and never subjected to rough handling. 
If strong chicks are desired, the eggs should be those of 
strong vigorous parents, and uniform in size and age. 

When a hen is being set, she should be thoroughly 
dusted with lice-powder. A second treatment should 
be given in ten days. This will rid her body The sitting 
of lice and often remove the cause for leav- ^®" 
ing the nest before the chicks hatch. This precaution 
is especially important in hot weather. 

A box of fine hay or grass makes an excellent nest. 
It should be about 1 5 inches square and 6 inches deep ; 
the bottom is often filled with earth, hollowed 

Nests 

out, and well lined with straw or hay. A 
sitting hen should be allowed to leave her nest to exercise 
and feed once a day. She will cover 12-15 ^ggs effec- 
tively. 

It requires 21 days to hatch hen's eggs, 28 days to 
hatch duck, turkey, and guinea eggs, and Period of 
30 or more days for goose eggs. incubation 

In the evening after all the chicks have hatched, the 



332 TOPIC 25 

hen and her brood should be placed in a small coop 
or house. If the weather is warm, the coop may be 
placed on clean ground and moved to a fresh 
spot every few days. The chicks should be 
confined in a small yard near the coop for a few days, so 
that none will stray from the mother and be lost. If the 
weather is hot the coop should be placed in the shade of 
a tree ; if cool, it should be in the sunshine, preferably 
on the south side of a building. After two weeks the 
hen should be given her liberty to roam with the chicks. 
If artificial means of hatching and brooding are em- 
ployed, it is best to follow carefully the directions which 
Incubators come with the incubator and brooder. If 
and brooders good sitting hens are to be had, and not 
more than 200 chicks are desired, it is usually best not 
to use an incubator. 

The best time to have chicks hatch is in April and early 
May. Pullets from these chicks will mature early enough 
to lay in autumn and early winter. It is 
difficult to get good laying hens to sit in 
March and April, so the use of an incubator or neighbor- 
hood hatchery is very common and practicable. 

184. Feeding Chicks 

No food should be given the chicks the first day. The 
chick will feed on the unabsorbed yolk in its body for three 
days. Then chick-grain and chick-mash should be given. 

It is well to feed at first in shallow trays. Chicks 
should have plenty of food ; in fact, it is safe to keep 
Feeding the food before them all the time, provided it is 
young birds fresh and sweet. However, when this is 
practiced, the chicks kick the food into their bedding 



POULTRY 333 

where it mixes with filth, becomes stale and moldy, and 
then when eaten produces digestive disorders. Clean 
food in clean dishes is more important than the kind or 
quantity of food. 

Our grandmothers raised very good chickens on corn 
meal and bread mixed in sour milk and fed three times 
daily. It is still possible to raise good chicks in this 
way. However, if the flock is rather large, it is better 
to use a good brand of commercial chick-grain and mash, 
keeping sour milk, water, and sand or fine grit before the 
chicks all the time. 

185. Diseases and Pests 

Many ailments and diseases attack poultry. At the 
same time, there is no animal more capable of with- 
standing sickness. The danger of strong stock contract- 
ing disease in clean fresh-air houses when fed wholesome 
food is small or even negative. However, it is possible 
by neglect and improper sanitation to impair the diges- 
tion of the most rugged birds, so that disease germs find 
foothold. 

The most common disease of poultry is some form of 
cold or roup. This is generally brought about by ex- 
cessive dampness ; or it may be due to over- 
feeding, or filthy water, or litter containing 
germs which derange the fowl's digestion .and weaken 
the constitution. 

The treatment for roup is first to remedy the improper 
conditions and remove the affected birds. If the bird 
shows a swollen face or eye, the cost of Treatment for 
curing her is usually greater than her value. ^°^p 
But if the bird sneezes and shows a slight mucus dis- 



334 



TOPIC 25 



charge from the nose, mouth, or eyes, then it is possible 
to cure her. The easiest and surest method is to plunge 
the entire head into kerosene, holding it there but a 
moment. The fowl should then be removed to a com- 
fortable place and receive wholesome food. A slight 
film of kerosene should be kept on her drinking water for 
three days. Usually one treatment cures. It is a wise 
precaution to pour a little kerosene on the drinking water 
every week or two, especially if the weather turns cold 
or damp, or if a few of the hens sneeze or cough. Be 
sure to use enough kerosene so that the hen cannot 
get water without passing her bill through the thin him 
of it. 

The fowls must be protected from lice. Following are 
standard directions (Lawry's lice powder) : 

Spread 2^ lbs. plaster of Paris in a shallow pan or tray. Pour 
^ pint of crude carbolic acid into a cup and into this pour f pint 
of gasoline. Pour this mixture over the plaster of 
nclTr^tZ P^^^s and mix thoroughly. Rub through wire 
window-screen on a piece of paper. Allow it to stand 
for i^ to 2 hours until thoroughly dry. Do not place near a stove. 
Keep powder in a closed can or jar. Apply by means of ordinary 
sifter, or with fingers. Brush the powder in among the feathers 
about the vent, fluff, and under the wings. Repeat in about two 
weeks in extreme cases. Ordinarily this need not be repeated 
for six months. A small pinch of the powder is sufficient for a 
fowl. 

To avoid tainting the flesh, apply one week before killing. 
Treat brooding hens at the beginning of the period of incubation 
and again, lightly, a few days before the hatch. 

To destroy red mites, paint or spray the perches, dropping 
boards and other harboring places with a mixture of one part crude 
carbolic acid and three parts kerosene oil. 



POULTRY 335 

REVIEW 

Where is the bulk of the poultry products raised? 

How extensive is the poultry business ? 

What do you mean by poultry ? What kinds of animals ? 

How does the chick live and grow inside the egg? 

How are poor eggs discovered? 

What place do fowls occupy on the farm ? 

How readily may fowls be cared for? 

What are the classes of farm poultry? Contrast the different 
types. 

Mention some of the good farm breeds. 

How may the flock be started? 

What is the importance of care in feeding? 

Give examples of rotations. 

Name the essentials in the proper housing of fowls. 

How is ventilation assured? 

How should the pens be arranged ? 

What can you say about the mating to secure best results? 
What should be the nature of the parents ? 

Contrast natural and artificial hatching or incubation. 

How should eggs be handled for hatching ? 

Explain the setting of a hen. 

How should chicks be cared for? 

What is brooding? 

Explain the proper feeding of chicks. 

What is to be done for lice ? for roup ? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

What was the number of poultry in (a) the county and (b) in 
the state according to your last school or federal census? What 
was the value of the poultry ? Of the eggs ? . Are there more 
recent estimates or statistics ? 

Are there any specialized poultry farms in your region? If so, 
report on the kind and number of fowls, and the methods. 

One pupil should bring a fresh egg to school; another a hard 
boiled egg. Break the fresh egg into a clean saucer ; cut the hard 
boiled egg in two. Examine both eggs very carefully, and see 
whether you can find all of the parts. 



S3^ TOPIC 25 

Ask your local merchant or whoever purchases from the pro- 
ducer, about the percentage of bad, dirty, and cracked eggs he 
finds in his deliveries. 

Make an egg-candling device. Obtain from the store or home 
a bad egg, a stale egg, an egg with a blood clot, and a strictly fresh 
egg. Examine all closely and note the differences in appearance. 

Make a list or a map of the different farms in your district or 
farm community, and indicate the kind, breed, and number of 
poultry kept on each one. 

What is the average number of eggs produced to the hen on 
your farm? What is the highest authentic egg record in the 
United States? 

What is your favorite breed of poultry ? Why ? 

Who in your section sells day-old chicks ? How far may chicks 
be sent with safety by mail or express ? 

Describe the method in feeding the home flock and the nature 
of the ration. How do the rations vary from season to season ? 

Describe the methods of housing and yarding of poultry as 
practiced by a successful poultryman in your community. 

What is the Standard of Perfection as it relates to poultry? 
What breeds and varieties are included in the Standard? Do 
you think that breeding for ''feathers" or fancy points will conflict 
with the obtaining of utility points or high egg yields ? Why ? 

Describe the methods followed by successful poultrymen in 
breeding for high egg-production. 

Is natural or artificial hatching and brooding practiced generally 
on the farms in your region? Which method do you prefer? 
Why? Describe the methods used with your flock. 

Describe the chick ration and method of handling chicks recom- 
mended by the poultry department of the state college of agri- 
culture. Consult your county agent. 

What are the most troublesome ailments and diseases that 
affect poultry flocks in your county? Describe the preventive 
and remedial methods that are to be adopted in each instance. 

CLASS PROBLEMS 

Arrange with your parents to take over the care and manage- 
ment of the home flock for an entire year, or secure their permission 
to keep a flock of your own. 

Join, or help to organize, a poultry club in your school. Write 
to the state club leader at your college of agriculture for literature 
and suggestions dealing with the poultry club work. 

Make a census or enumeration of the fowls in your school 
district. 



TOPIC 26 

BEES AND HONEY 

The bee is the smallest of the animals usually reared 
by man. The silkworm and sometimes the cochineal 
insect are the other insects raised for their commercial 
products. 

The bees are "social insects," which means that they 
live in great families or colonies and all work together 
for the welfare of the colony, one class or ^^ 

•^ ^ The colony 

group performing one duty and others per- 
forming other duties. To feed their young and them- 
selves they make a material known as honey. 

The honey is made in the organs of the bee from the 
nectar gathered from the flowers. The bees build a 
comb of wax, and in the six-sided cells the The honey and 
liquid honey is stored against the time of *^® ^^ 
need. They also collect and store pollen for food. 

By placing the colony in a hive and properly managing 
the insects, more honey is made than the bees need, and 
this surplus the beekeeper takes. He may Man takes the 
even take all the honey, when the breeding surplus 
season is past, and feed the bees until the next season 
with sugar (sirup) or the cheaper grades of honey. Usu- 
ally, however, the good beekeeper leaves enough honey 
in the hive to supply the needs of the bees. 

z - 337 



338 



TOPIC 26 



The brood 



1 86. The Honey-Bee 

Like other insects, bees are propagated from eggs. 
The eggs are laid in the cells of the honey- 
comb. The young taken together, when in 
the form of grubs or larvae, is known as the brood. 

It may appear that the bees in the hive are alike, but 
Kinds of bees if we look closely we find that there are three 

in the hive J^j^ds : 

The queen^ which is the mother of all the others in 
the hive, and the only developed female of the 
colony ; 

the drones or male bees, which are stingless ; 

the thousands of workers (undeveloped females), so 
called because they do the work of the colony. 




The Three Kinds of Honey-Bee (enlarged). — a, worker; b, queen; c, drone. 

All these live together in the hive and not one of 
them is able to live alone. The queen is not the ruler 
of the hive; this name was given to the 
mother bee centuries ago, before the nature 
of the colony had been studied. We know that she does 
nothing but lay eggs from which the other bees develop. 
She is proficient in this, for she sometimes lays as many 
as 2 GOG or even more eersrs in a single day. 



The queen 



BEES AND HONEY 339 

The drones do no work; the lazy person is called a 

drone because he does no more work than the male bee. 

The workers do not seem to approve of loafers ^, , 

1 1 . 1 1 , r The drones 

in the hive, and as soon as the supply of new 

honey is reduced, the drones are driven from the hive to 

starve to death. 

The workers are well named. They clean the hive, 

feed the developing brood, build the wax cells of the 

comb in which the brood (or young) is reared _ 

\ f r ^^ , The workers 

and the honey stored, and, last of all, they 

gather the honey and pollen on which all the bees of the 

colony live. They seem busy as we see them flying 

from the hive, and the more we study them the more 

their industry is admired. From the time they come 

from the wax cells as full grown bees until they die, there 

is no rest for them if there is any work to be done. It 

is an interesting fact that they work themselves to death, 

for the more there is to do, the sooner they die. In the 

busy season of summer, when there is plenty of nectar 

to gather, the workers live about six weeks, but in the 

autumn and winter there is usually less work and they 

may live six months. It is small wonder that they are 

cited as examples of industry. Of course, they do not 

appreciate what they are doing as we do, for bees do 

not have real memories and do not learn from experience, 

but we admire their zeal. 

From the eggs of the queen bee all the members of the 

hive develop. Whether the progeny shall be queens, 

drones or workers depends on the way in ^^ 

^ -^ The eggs 

which the young are fed and reared by the 

members of the colony. The queen is fertilized once 

by a drone, and then lays her great store of eggs. 



340 TOPIC 26 

It is as true of bees as of the farm live-stock that the 
best results are to be secured only by careful breeding. 
Necessity of In this case the queen bee only is bred. The 
breeding profit of the hive may depend on the character 

of her offspring. The breeding of queen bees is a specialty 
and the general beekeeper will do well to purchase queens 
from a reliable source. 

There are many kinds of honey-making bees in many 
parts of the world. They are placed in different genera 
The enus ^^ entomologists. The common honey-bee 
Apis, and the is of the genus Apis. Beekeeping is known 
apiary ^^ apiculture, and the establishment is an 

apiary. It is usually considered that Apis has only 
three species , the leading one being Apis mellifica, the 

'^honey-making" apis or honey- 
bee. This species inhabits many 
countries, but probably it is not 
native in the western hemi- 
sphere. There are many races of 
it, as the Italian, Cyprian, Ger- 
man, Syrian. 

The Ancient Hive of 187. ThE HiVE 

Plaited Straw 

All the bees live together in a 
hive unless they are living in a hollow tree or cave in the 
The house in ^^^ks. The artificial hives are usually so 
which they made that the beekeeper can help the bees do 

live 

their work better. Inside the hive are large 
combs, just like the comb in which we see honey for 
sale, but larger. Each cell of the comb has six sides and 
the ends fit together snugly so that there is no waste 
space. 




BEES AND HONEY 



341 



The beekeeper finds it necessary to give the bees more 
room at times and he must also learn how they are work- 
ing, so he makes wooden frames in which the 
combs are built by the bees. Then he can 
take out any one or all of the combs, can change combs 
from one hive to another, and can give the bees the care 
which they so often need. In the old-fashioned box-hives 

or log "gums," the combs are 
not built in frames and so 
they cannot be handled. This 
is the reason why it is only 
the modern beekeeper who 
finds bees to be profitable. 

The best hive has ten 
frames, each one of which is 
i7f by 91 inches The Lang- 
in size. This is strothhive 
the standard size of frame 
in the United States. This 
movable frame hive was invented by Rev. L. L. La.ng- 
stroth, and he decided the size of the frame as best suited 
to the needs of the bees. It is necessary that the hives 
and frames be accurately made and it is best to buy at 
least one as a pattern to be followed closely if one makes 
one's own hives. Most beekeepers buy them from the 
factories which specialize in supplies for beekeeping. 

In the cells of the central combs the young developing 
brood is reared throughout the year except in winter. 
The queen goes from cell to cell and deposits The eggs and 
a small egg in the bottom of each one. In *^® ^^^^^ 
three days this egg hatches into a white worm-like larva, 
and this is fed and cared for by the workers. For six days 




The Laxgstroth Hive, as Illus- 
trated BY THE Inventor 



342 TOPIC 26 

this young larva is fed large quantities of honey and pollen 
and it increases to many times its original size and fills 
the cell. Then the cell is capped over by the workers. 

The larva gradually changes into the form of the adult 
bee and in 21 days from the time the egg was laid the 
full-grown adult worker bee gnaws its way out of the 
wax cap. Drones require 24 days to develop, while 
queens reach the adult stage in 16 days. 

188. The Honey 

In other cells above and behind the brood, the workers 

store the supply of pollen or bee-bread with which the 

brood is fed, and still higher in the combs is 

the store of honey which they use as food 

when no nectar is available. 

The pollen comes from the various flowers on which 
the workers are seen, while the honey is made from 
Pollen and nectar, the sweet liquid of the flower. If 
nectar ^^^ watches closely when bees are at work 

on a flower, he can tell whether they are gathering nectar 
or pollen, for when they get nectar they stick out the 
tongue and probe into the bottom of the flower, while 
in gathering pollen they get it all over their bodies, col- 
lect it by brushing on the legs and finally carrying it home 
to the hive on the back legs in little pellets. The nectar is 
carried in a special sack inside the bee's abdomen, and when 
the hive is reached this sweet load is deposited in the cells. 

Any one at all familiar with honey knows that there 
are great differences in the flavors and colors of different 
The flavor kinds. We know that the blossom of the 
of honey apple is not at all like that of the clover in 

shape and that there is much difference in the colors of 



BEES AND HONEY 343 

various flowers. There is also great difference in the 
color and flavor of the various nectars. The flavor of 
the nectar is still observed in the finished product, honey. 

Thus we have the honey of white clover, which is white 
in color and of characteristic flavor, while that from buck- 
wheat is dark colored and has a flavor enjoyed Kinds of 
only by those who have learned to like it in honey 
their youth. The honey from alfalfa is as light as that 
from clover, when it is produced in the high altitudes 
of Colorado and Utah, and it soon granulates or '^ turns 
to sugar." Alfalfa honey from the lower altitudes of 
California, Arizona, and New Mexico is amber in color 
and has a flavor slightly different from that of the white 
alfalfa honey. The honeys from wild raspberry, fire- 
weed, basswood, sweet clover, the mesquite of Texas, 
and the mountain sages of California are white, those 
from the sourwood of the southern mountains, Spanish 
needle and tupelo of the southern swamps are amber, 
whfle those from the tulip tree (tulip poplar or white- 
wood) and buckwheat are dark. Sweet clover honey 
sometimes has a green tint, whfle some others are nearly 
red. 

The plants named in the preceding paragraphs are the 

chief sources of honey in the United States, but bees 

gather, nectar from many other plants, and 

r . r ^ . . , , Honey plants 

m certam parts of the country considerable 

quantities are harvested from other sources. A full list 

of the plants from which bees gather honey that the 

beekeeper can market would be large, and if we were 

to include descriptions of all the plants from which 

bees ever gather nectar or poflen, a special book would 

be needed for them. 



344 TOPIC 26 

When nectar is brought to the hive it is often merely 
sweetened water, but the bees evaporate much of this 
What honey is ^^^^''' leaving the thick honey. They also 
make other changes in it, for the sugar is 
changed from being mostly cane-sugar to what is known 
as invert-sugar. This change is the same as takes place 
when we eat cane-sugar, so that honey is really pre- 
digested sugar. It may therefore be eaten by those who 
cannot digest cane-sugar and it will not harm the diges- 
tion as will too much candy. 

In making this change in the sugar, the bees give to 
honey certain characteristics that sugar does not possess. 
If cakes are made with honey instead of sugar, they will 
not dry out so rapidly, and for this reason commercial 
bakers use considerable quantities of honey in making 
cakes that He on the shelves for a long time. 

It is thus seen that the bee-hive is a chemical labora- 
tory. Nectar would soon ferment if the bees did not 
drive off the surplus water ; and the other changes make 
it a much better food. 

When the nectar is first brought to the hive it is de- 
posited in the cells by the gathering bees. Then other 
From nectar to b^es fan it with their wings, move it from 
honey ^^^ ^^ ^.^jj during the process of ripening and 

finally fill cells with it and seal in the honey with a capping 
of wax. The honey is now ready for use as food either 
for the bees or for man. 

The process of ripening takes place within a few hours, 
yet if the honey remains in the hive for a long time it 
Ripening of Still undergoes change, for it becomes still 
the honey thicker and richer in flavor. Honey that is 
well ripened does not ferment and, therefore, will keep 



BEES AND HONEY 345 

for years without spoiling. After a few years it begins 
to darken, but the flavor is not injured. 

189. Kinds of Honey 

Honey is used by man in several forms. The small 
combs built in wooden frames, called sections, are fa- 
mihar to us all. These sections are placed 
in the top of the hive by the beekeeper, the 
bees build comb in them and then fill this comb with 
honey and seal it over, when the finished product is 
removed and ready for the table. This is called comb- 
honey. 

In buying comb-honey we may be sure that it is a 
product of the bees and is not adulterated, for no one 
has ever been able to make this delicate xhecombis 
comb and to fill it with inferior material. A notmanufac- 
skilled beekeeper can have his bees produce ^^^ ^ ^^ 
such even and fine combs that it sometimes seems im- 
possible that they are not machine made, but if they 
are examined carefully it is seen that no two are exactly 
alike as would be the case if they were turned out of a 
mold. 

Honey is mostly marketed in liquid form in bottles 
or cans, having been separated from the comb. This 
is known as extracted honey, or when it is How 
simply squeezed from the combs by the old- marketed 
fashioned crude process it is known as strained honey. 
When extracted the comb remains uninjured and the 
bees fill the combs again when they are put back in the 
hive. 

When they are well filled, the combs are taken from the 
hive, the wax capping is removed with a warm knife, 



346 TOPIC 26 

the comb is whirled rapidly in a special machine, known 

as the honey extractor, and the honey flies out. The 

combs are then returned to the hive and the 

bees refill it if there is still nectar coming in. 

If the season is over, the beekeeper saves these combs 

to be used the following year. Since it requires about 

Saving the twenty pounds of honey to make one pound 

comb Qf ^a^x, it will be seen that the extracting of 

honey is economical in bee energy. The price of the 

container and the work of bottling usually brings the 

price of extracted honey in small vessels to about that 

of comb-honey. 

A crude method of removing honey is simply to cut 
out the comb from the hive, and when it is marketed 
liquid honey is poured over it to fill the con- 
tainer. This is known as chunk-honey or 
bulk comb-honey. It is as pure as honey in the other 
forms, but it is usually produced by unskilled beekeepers, 
and it cannot be recommended. Usually it is the owner 
of box-hives, without movable frames, who takes his 
honey in this form. In beekeeping, as in every other 
line of agriculture, it pays to follow the best methods. 

190. Handling the Bees 

The fear of stings keeps many persons from raising 
bees ; yet the beekeeper would not have stingless bees 
How to handle if he could, for he knows that honey would 
^®®^ not remain in his hives long unless it were 

guarded well, if there were many boys about. The bee- 
keeper learns how he may handle his bees so that they 
do not sting him much ; and he becomes accustomed to 
the stings so that, while they are not pleasant, they 



BEES AND HONEY 347 

do not cause a swelling on him as they do on the 
uninitiated. If the operator is calm and quiet in his 
movements, the bees do not become excited. They 
sting to protect themselves. By the proper use of smoke 
blown over the combs after the roof of the hive is re- 
moved, the bees may readily be handled. 

The beekeeper can do much to help his bees to gather 
more honey. This skill lies in two directions : (i) the 
bees must be provided with conditions that Qettingthe 
will permit the colony to build up to full most from the 
strength before nectar is abundant ; and ^° °^^ 
(2) then they must be kept from dividing their strength 
by swarming. The oldtime beekeeper boasted of the 
number of swarms, but this does not increase the output 
of honey. In all his work, the beekeeper does not attempt 
to change the instincts of the bees, for they are still wild 
animals. He merely directs their instincts into lines that 
will bring him greater profit. 

The work of getting the colonies strong in time for the 
gathering of nectar begins the previous fall. The bees are 
thoroughly safeguarded from cold and wind, wintering the 
In the Northern States it is necessary to give colony 
the bees protection from winter cold. Sometimes in the 
south nothing more is needed than a sheltered place, 
inclosed by buildings or high tight fences. If the ther- 
mometer is likely to register much below freezing, the 
hives should be wintered in a specially prepared cellar, 
or else packed in larger boxes with plenty of shavings or 
chaff around them. Even though unprotected colonies 
may live through the winter, they are likely to come out 
weak in the spring. 

The food in winter must be of good quality, for not all 



348 TOPIC 26 

honey is equally useful for this purpose. If a sufficient 
supply of good honey is not at hand, the bees should be 
given a sirup made of granulated sugar. 

In the spring the bees need not only the protection and 
the abundant food as in winter, but also plenty of room 
Treatment in in which to rear great quantities of brood, 
spring Usually this process must be aided by the bee- 

keeper, or the colonies will fail to grow to proper strength. 
If protection, food, and room for breeding are provided, 
there is little else that the beekeeper can do to assist 
the bees, yet it is in this work that most beekeepers fail, 
and the failure results in loss of half the honey crop. 

191. Swarming 

As the season advances and the secretion of nectar 
begins, new colonies may form by swarming. In this 
What is meant P^ocess the old queen and most of the workers 
by" swarm- leave the hive to form a new colony, leaving 
*^^ behind them the stores of honey and pollen, 

the brood, and some queen cells from which will emerge 
young queens. 

Of course, there must be some way for the formation 
of new colonies, but the beekeeper has learned that this 
How to pre- results in a great loss of honey, so he tries to 
vent swarming prevent swarming and then divides his col- 
onies, if he wishes more, after the honey flow is over 
for the year. It is not easy to break up this swarm- 
ing instinct, and the skill of the beekeeper is to be 
measured by his effort in this direction rather than in 
his success. 

The method is to examine every colony about once a 
week, and queen cells that contain only eggs or young 



BEES AND HONEY 349 

larv« are removed. If, however, the swarming prepara- 
tions have progressed so far that the larvae are of fair 
size, the only thing the beekeeper can do is to ^^^ ^^^^^^ 
cage the queen so that she cannot lay more 
eggs and so that she cannot go out with a swarm. After 
a period of about ten days she is released and usually the 
danger of swarming will have passed. Of course, all queen 
cells are removed before and after the caging of the queen. 
If the beekeeper prefers, he may make an artificial 
swarm by removing the brood, with the queen cells 
attached to the combs, to a new hive, and Artificial 
this is better than to wait until the bees de- ^^^^"^ 
cide to swarm at their convenience, for then they may 
fly off to the woods and be lost. There are ways by 
which the beekeeper may reunite the swarm with the 
old colony and thus have the bees together again for 
the gathering of honey. Some of these processes are 
rather complex and should be undertaken only by the 
experienced beekeeper. 

192. Diseases of Bees 

Unfortunately there are two serious diseases of the 
young, called foul-brood. They are caused by bacteria. 

American foul-brood causes the larvae to die and decay 
into a sticky mass which the bees cannot re- p^^i.^^^^^^ 
move from the cells. The only remedy is to 
remove the combs and allow the bees to build a new set. 

European foul-brood is less dangerous since the dead 
larv« can be removed from the cells, and the combs can 
still be used for the rearing of brood. 

Both diseases cause considerable loss, and every bee- 
keeper should study the symptoms so that they may be 



^5o 



TOPIC 26 



recognized early. Many States have inspectors who 
gladly assist in eradicating these troubles without cost to 
the beekeeper. 



193. The Value of Beekeeping in North America 

Few persons realize the importance of the beekeeping 
Extent of industry. The average honey crop of the 

beekeeping United States is about 250,000,000 pounds, 
yet it is less than 2 1 pounds to each person. 




An Apiary 

While the industry is growing rapidly, beekeeping is 
doing more for the country than simply to conserve this 
amount of sweet. Bees gather both nectar and pollen. 
They have a habit of not visiting two kinds of flowers on 
one trip. The result is that they bring about cross- 
pollination, without which many of the fruits will not 
set seed, and unless the seed is set there will be no 
fruit. 



BEES AND HONEY 35i 

Many forage crops must also be cross-pollinated. The 
part the bees unconsciously play in carrying pollen from 
flower to flower brings a greater gain to the Bees in fruit- 
agriculture of the country than the entire s^^^^^^s 
honey crop. In many of the large orchards, bees are 
brought in for this work without reference to their honey 
gathering. In greenhouses where cucumbers are grown 
in winter, colonies of bees are sometimes employed for 
this purpose. 

REVIEW 

What are bee colonies? 
What is honey?; 

For what purpose do the bees make honey? 
How is it that the beekeeper gets the honey? 
What are the kinds of bees in the colony? Define each, and 
state the office. 

How are these different kinds produced? 

Why are some persons called drones? 

How may bees be improved by breeding? 

To what genus and species does the honey-bee belong? 

What is a beehive ? 

What is the movable-frame hive ? 

What are the frames? 

How do bees propagate ? What is a queen bee ? 

How long is required from the egg to the mature worker? 
drone? queen? 

What is bee-bread? Of what use? 

What is nectar? 

How do bees gather and carry pollen ? nectar ? 

What are the kinds of honey ? 

What plants provide most of the honey in the ffiarket? 

How is honey made from nectar ? 

What is the comb ? 

How long will honey keep? 

What is comb-honey? extracted honey? chunk-honey? 



352 



TOPIC 26 



What becomes of the combs after the honey is extracted ? 

How are bees handled so that they do not sting ? 

How are the colonies made strong? 

What about winter protection ? 

How are bees fed in winter? 

What is swarming? Describe. 

What does the beekeeper do about the swarming instinct ? 

What is foul-brood ? Remedies ? 

What other service do bees render aside from making honey ? 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Mention some kinds of "social insects" with which you are 
familiar. How do their habits compare with those of bees ? How 
do honey-bees and bumble-bees differ in habits ? 

Help to obtain and install an observation hive in the school- 
room. So arrange the entrance to the hive that the bees may 
come and go out of doors without getting into the room. 
Glass sides to the hive will enable you to study the habits of the 
bees. Find the queen and watch the developing larvae. 

What are the principal honey-producing plants in your country? 

What is the prevailing price of comb-honey and extracted honey 
in your local market ? 

If any members of the class have had experience handling bees, 
let them demonstrate to the others how it is accompHshed. If 
not, visit some beekeeper and get him to demonstrate the proper 
methods of handling. 

Is there any foul-brood in the vicinity? 

What was the total value of the honey crop for (a) the county 
and (b) the state last year, or when the last census was taken ? 

What crops grown in your region are dependent on bees to a 
greater or less extent for pollination ? 

CLASS PROBLEM 

If conditions are favorable in the neighborhood for the keeping 
of bees, and they are not kept at home, plan to keep one or more 
hives yourself, getting some adult beekeeper to start you off. If 



BEES AND HONEY 353 

five or six pupils become interested, your state club leader will 
help you to organize a bee club which will make the work more 
interesting and possibly give you the chance to win honorary and 
cash prizes for the excellence of your work. 

How many persons in the district keep bees? How many 
colonies? What breeds or races? 

A hive with a glass side provides an interesting object for 
study. 



2A 



TOPIC 27 

THE DAIRY 

Of all the domestic animals, the milk-producing kinds 
are probably the most indispensable to man. The lead- 
ing milk-producer is the cow, which is the female of the 
species ox ; other animals prized for the giving of milk are 
the zebu, buffalo, reindeer, goat, sheep, llama, camel, mare. 

Milk is used in its natural state as a fresh food, and also 
for the manufacture of butter, the different kinds of 
cheese, ice-cream, and other products. 

194. Value of Milk as Human Food 

The reason why milk of some kind is so widely used 
is because mankind has learned that it satisfies hunger 
Milk a per- and meets the needs of the body, for persons 
feet food Qf ^\\ ages. The animal provides a daily 

supply, easily drawn and ready at once for food ; and, at 
the same time the animal also has other uses. Milk is 
probably the most perfect single food of which we have 
knowledge. 

Cow's milk is superior in food value to market meat 
when measured in terms of usual current price. A 
Food value pound of milk (a little less than a pint) has 
of milk about one-third the energy- value of a pound 

of good beefsteak, and about half as much protein and 
about the same amount of mineral elements. One pound 
of butter contains 3605 units or calories of energy-value, 
as against 985 calories in one pound of sirloin steak. 

354 



THE DAIRY 355 

One pound of full milk cheese contains 1950 calories. In 
ash or mineral matter, both products are superior to the 
beefsteak, and in protein cheese much excels it. 

The consumption of milk per capita constantly in- 
creases, indicating that the people recognize its value as 

food. 

195. Extent of Milk Production 

Figures of the Department of Agriculture show in the 
year 1914 nearly 21,000,000 dairy cattle in the United 
States. The value of the butter, cheese, and ^^^ ^^^^ 
condensed milk from the yield of the dairy milk ^s pro- 
cows was almost $365,000,000, or one million 
dollars a day ; and this does not include the value of the 
milk used for other purposes. Large as these figures are, 
they do not represent the entire importance of milk 
production in agriculture, for much manure is produced, 
and this makes it possible for the farmer to raise larger 
crops of hay, potatoes, grain, and other food products. 
There is approximately one dairy cow to every family. 

The number of dairy cows on farms in the United 
States in 1910 was 20,625,432. The total milk produc- 
tion in 1909 was 5,814,000,000 gallons, (i gallon = 8.6 
pounds.) In Canada in 191 1 the number of milch cows 
was 2,595,255, and the total production of milk was 
9,806,741,348 pounds. From these figures and the pop- 
ulation figures given on pages 14, 15, the per capita pro- 
duction can be calculated. 

196. What is Dairying 
Dairying is that branch of farming having to do with the 
production and handling of milk and with the manu- 
facture of its products. 



356 



TOPIC 27 



The dairy 



Creamery 




The word "dairy" is used in different senses, sometimes 
to denote the milk-producing herd and the estabHshment 
that goes with it, sometimes to designate the 
building or place in which the milk and its 
products are handled. 

A creamery is a commercial dairy establishment manu- 
facturing butter; but it usually sells whole-milk (that 
from which milk-fat has not been removed), 
or may even make cheese when this product 
is more profitable 
than butter. 

In the college of 
agriculture the sub- - 

Dairy depart- J^^t 01 

ments dairy- 

ing is often confined 
to the handling and 
manufacture of the milk after it leaves the herd, and 
the production of it, in that case, is left to the animal 
husbandry department. The dairy establishment is 
then a factory, combining butter-making, cheese-making, 
the marketing and testing of milk and its products to- 
gether with the teaching of the scientific matters re- 
lating thereto. That is, the subject deals with milk, 
not with animals. In this sense it is studied in the present 
chapter. 

Butter-making and cheese-making as home industries 

are passing out in regions in which there is sufficient milk 

. ^ production to maintain factories. Yet every 

Home mdus- ^ ^ . . 

tries passing farm household is called on to handle milk m 
°^* one form or another. 

The handling of whole- or market-milk is one of the 



A Creamery Building 



THE DAIRY 



357 



most important parts of the dairy business, supplying the 
cities and towns with their daily needs. About 112 quarts 
of milk per annum are consumed in cities of 

1 TT • 1 o rr^i Market milk 

the United States to every person. The 
winter supply of milk to the cities is very large, and silos 
have come to be a part of the equipment of the dairy farm 
in the North to furnish succulent roughage to the cows. 




Milk to Market 



What milk is 



197. Composition in General 

The composition of milk is complex, but 
there are only six substances of interest to 
the dairyman : 
(i) water 

(2) fat 

(3) casein, more commonly 

called curd 
These substances are present in all milk, but they vary 
in amount, the reasons of the variation not being always 
known. The composition of the milk of a cer- composition 
tain cow is not always the same. If she is °^ ^^^^' ^^^^ 
sick, or becomes angry or excited, the composition of her 



(4) milk sugar 

(5) albumin 

(6) ash 



358 



TOPIC 27 



milk is likely to change. The composition varies also 
with the breed. There is wide variation in the first few 
streams and the last milk drawn from the cow. The 
first milk is low in fat, while the last contains a high 
percentage. The composition is also influenced by the 
length of time the cow has been giving milk. If she has 
been in lactation a long time, say ten months, the milk 
will be much higher in fat content than at five or six 
months. 

The average composition of a normal cow's milk is 
about as follows : 



Water . 
Fat . . 
Casein . 
Sugar . 
Albumin 
Ash . . 



87.27 per cent 
3.68 per cent 
2.88 per cent 
5.0 per cent 
0.51 per cent 
0.72 per cent 



The fat, casein, sugar, albumin, and ash comprise the 
"total solids." The casein, sugar, albumin, and ash are 
the "solids not fat." 

The water in milk is no different from water found else- 
where. It gives milk its liquid condition, and is the 
carrier of the other materials. 

With these figures may be compared those 
of the milk of other animals : 



Other milk 



Goat . . . 
Sheep . . . 
Indian buffalo 
Camel . . . 
Reindeer . . 



Water 


Fat 


Casein 


Albumin 


86.88 


4.07 


2.87 


0.89 


83.57 


6.18 


4.17 


0.98 


82.16 


7.51 


4.26 


0.46 


87.13 


2.87 


3-49 


0.38 


67.20 


17.09 


8.28 


1. 51 



Ash 



0.85 
0.96 
0.84 
0.74 
1.49 



THE DAIRY 359 

198. The Fat in Milk 

The fat is one of the most important substances in 
milk, and at the same time the most variable. 

It is present in the form of small globular droplets, 
so small that a microscope magnifying several hundred 
times is necessary to see and study them. The fat 
It is lighter than the other substances, and globules 
when milk is allowed to stand for any length of time the 
fat rises to the surface. 

Fat is important as a direct food, and also in the making 
of the different products. It is an important part of 
many dairy products, such as ordinary Ameri- 
can cheese, but its chief use in manufacturing 
is in the making of butter. About 80 per cent to 82 per 
cent of butter is fat ; because of its importance in butter- 
making, it is often called butter-fat. This fat furnishes 
heat or energy for the human body, and recent experi- 
ments tend to show that it is more valuable for this pur- 
pose than, most fats of other kinds. 

199. The Casein 

Casein, commonly called curd when it becomes united 
into a mass, exists in milk in such fine particles that 
it cannot be strained out by any ordinary means. 
Casein contains a large proportion of protein, casein and 
and for this reason it is one of the most ^"^^ 
important food substances in milk. It forms a consid- 
erable part of most kinds of cheese. 

The casein may be thrown down in a solid mass by add- 
ing certain substances to milk, such as rennet and pepsin. 
Very weak acids also cause the casein to come down in a 



360 TOPIC 27 

solid mass. This is what happens when milk sours 
naturally. The solidified casein is used in manufacture, 
as in the making of buttons, combs, toilet articles, and the 
finishing of writing paper. 

200. The Milk-Sugar 

Milk-sugar, commonly called lactose, is in solution in 
milk. It differs somewhat from cane-sugar, and will 
The sugar in not dissolve as easily. It is used to coat pills 
^^^ and for making of powders in medicine. 

The process of obtaining sugar from milk is expensive, 
and this is probably one of the reasons why it is not more 
commonly used. 

201. Albumin 

The albumin is in solution. Like casein, it furnishes 
protein. It is thrown out of solution by high temper a- 
The albumin ture, and when once it is in solid form it will 
content ^q^ gQ [^iq solution again. Boiled milk has 

most of its albumin thrown down in solid form. 

Albumin may be roughly compared to the white of an 
egg. It is sometimes made into Italian cheese, which is 
a valuable food product containing a high percentage of 
nutritive protein. 

202. Ash 

The ash is the part left after the milk has been burned. 
The burning follows, of course, the evaporation of the 
What the liquid part. Ash is the mineral substances 

ash is jj^ ^\^Q milk, such as salts of calcium, iron, 

magnesium, phosphorus, and sulfur. 



THE DAIRY 361 

Ash varies the least of any of the substances in milk, 
and while it is present in small amounts, it is necessary for 
growing animals in the formation of bone. It comprises 
one of the important food elements. 

203. The Germs in Milk 

Every one knows that if milk is allowed to stand at the 
temperature of the room for a few hours, it will turn 
sour. In many cases the souring is accom- Organisms in 
panied by other changes which render the "^^^ 
milk unfit for human food. 

These changes are caused by the action of bacteria 
or germs. The organisms are nearly everywhere, as in 
dirt, dust, on the body of the cow, and also on the utensils, 
unless great pains is taken to clean them. Some diseases, 
such as diphtheria, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis, are 
caused by bacteria (page 91). But not all bacteria are 
harmful to mankind. 

Bacteria must have plenty of moisture to grow well, 
more or less mineral matter, and usually a temperature of 
80° F. to 100° F. Knowing these facts, it is easy to see 
that milk is naturally a good medium or ''soil'' for 
them. 

It is important that all dairy utensils be kept very clean 
after washing. They should be thoroughly scalded or, 
better still, subjected to live steam for not (.j^^^iij^^gs 
less than an hour. The farm practice of 
setting in the sun after cleaning, is also an aid in steriliz- 
ing, but they should at the same time be protected from 
contamination by dust and dirt. Using a small-top or 
covered milk pail will also keep out a large number of 
bacteria. 



362 TOPIC 27 

In spite of all care, a few bacteria will enter, and unless 
milk is cooled soon after being drawn, and kept cold, 

these germs will multiply with great rapidity. 

This would soon cause the milk to spoil. 
Most bacteria do not grow well at a temperature of 50° F. 
or below. It is always best, if the milk is to be held for 
any length of time, to keep it at as low temperature as 
possible and not freeze it. 

Straining milk does not remove the germs, although it 
catches much of the foreign matter that carries them. 

Germs pass wherever the milk globules can 

pass. Straining does not even purify the 
milk, because much of the un cleanliness is soluble. How- 
ever, straining is a great aid if the proper device is em- 
ployed. Some of the modern cone-shaped strainers are 
fitted with absorbent cotton held between layers of gauze, 
the cotton being removed after every straining. Some 
strainers use layers of cheese-cloth and other materials. 
Straining greatly improves the appearance of the milk. 

No good dairying is possible without the strictest clean- 
liness, and this cleanliness consists not alone in the re- 
moval of impurities, but in eliminating conditions favor- 
able for the growth of germs. 

204. The Cream 

Cream may be defined as milk into which a large per- 
centage of fat has been gathered. This large content 
of fat lessens the proportion of other con- 

What cream is . i i • i i i 

stituents. Cream may be obtamed by al- 
lowing the milk to stand quietly for several hours, 
when the fat rises to the surface and it may be 
skimmed off. 



THE DAIRY 



363 



— vfw 



There is wide variation in the percentage of fat in cream. 
Most states fix by law the lowest amount of fat it may 
contain and still be sold as cream. The low- pat composi- 
est legal fat limit in the different states tion of cream 
varies from 15 per cent to 20 per cent, but only four 
states have the lowest legal fat hmit as high as 20 per 

cent and only one as low as 
1 5 per cent. The larger num- 
ber have adopted 18 per cent 
as the lowest legal fat limit. 
Since cream contains all of the 
substances found in milk, it 
must be cared for in the same 
way. When held in storage 
it must be kept cold. 

The most common method 
of obtaining cream is to run 
milk through a 
machine called a 
separator, operating on the 
principle of centrifugal force. 
This mechanism contains a 
cylindrical bowl which re- 
volves at high speed, and as the milk flows through it, 
the cream is forced to the center and the skim-milk, being 
heavier, is forced to the outside. As the bowl fills, the 
cream and the skim-milk flow out through openings pro- 
vided for them. 

The separator has reached a high degree of mechanical 
perfection. It is manufactured in many dif- ^^^ separator 
ferent styles and some are operated by hand 
and some by power, depending on the size of the machine. 




Separating 



One of the Forms of Hand 
Separator 



364 TOPIC 27 

205. Butter 

Cream is used for many purposes, one of the most com- 
mon being the making of butter. 

Sour cream is mostly used in butter-making, although 

sweet cream may be employed. For butter-making it 

is best to use cream containing^ about ^o per 
Making butter ° ^ sr 

cent to 35 per cent fat. The cream is "ri- 
pened" by being held for several hours at the desired 
temperature for churning, this temperature varying with 
conditions. In summer 48° F. is good temperature, 
while in winter it may be necessary to churn as high as 
64° F. Such temperatures should be maintained as will 
allow the process of churning to be completed in about 
three-quarters of an hour. 

The churning causes the particles of fat to stick to- 
gether in a firm mass, and the butter ''comes." The 

^^ . buttermilk is then drawn off, and the butter 

Churning . ' 

is washed two or three times in clean water 
of about the same temperature as the buttermilk. The 
purpose of washing is to remove all the buttermilk, which 
if left in the butter would injure its keeping qualities. 

After washing, salt is usually added and the product 
allowed to stand until the salt is dissolved, after which 
Salting the it is evenly worked through the butter, 
butter Three-quarters of an ounce to one ounce 

of salt for every pound of butter is a common rate. 

One hundred pounds of fat will produce more than one 
hundred pounds of butter, and the increase is due to the 
o ** • ,^ water, curd, and salt which are mixed with 

Butter yield . ' 

the fat in the process of churning and work- 
ing. The increase is called '' overrun " or " churn-yield " ; 



THE DAIRY 



365 



the amount obtained is variable, depending on the skill 
of the maker and conditions of manufacture. A skill- 
ful butter-maker will frequently make 120 pounds of 
butter from 100 pounds of fat. When milk is purchased 
at the creamery on its butter-making test, the creamery- 
man expects to make most of his profit on the overrun. 

Renovated or process butter is that which has been 
worked over in factories to remove impurities and bad 
flavors, and to make a more uniform product. Renovated 
The original product is usually of inferior ^^^^er 
quahty ; it comes mostly from home manufacture that 
has been purchased by small dealers. The manufac- 
ture of renovated butter is subject to oversight by 
government. 

206. Cheese 
Next to butter, the manufacture of different kinds of 
cheese is one of the most common uses of milk. 

In making ordinary hard American or cheddar cheese, 
the milk is warmed to about 85° F., and rennet or pep- 
sin is added. The making 
This pepsin of cheese 

causes the milk solids to 
collect in a mass, which 
is then cut into small 
cubes by means of wire 
knives. The watery part 
that separates is called 
A Cheese Room whey and the sohd cubes 

are called '' curds." The temperature of the ^^y ^nd 
entire mass is then raised to about 100° F. to curd 
solidify the curds; about one hour is required for the 




366 TOPIC 27 

process, the exact time and temperature depending on 
the condition of the curds. 

When the curds have sufficiently firmed, the whey is 
drawn off, the curds allowed to mat together, and they 
Cutting and are then cut into strips. These strips are 
pressing piled on top of one another for a time to 

allow the formation of a certain amount of acid. The 
strips are then cut into small pieces, by means of a curd- 
mill, salted, and pressed, making cheese. The metal 
hoops or the receptacles in which the curds are pressed 
give to cheese the shape in which we find it in the 
market. 

Many kinds of cheese (and which are excellent foods) 
may be made from skim-milk. One of the best examples 
Skim-milk C)f this is pot cheese. To make it, skim-milk 
cheese jg allowed to become sour and then it is 

warmed slightly until the whey and curd begin to sepa- 
rate. The curd is then broken up, care being taken not 
to break the particles so fine that they will be lost in the 
whey when it is drawn off. The mass is then warmed 
slightly and when the curd begins to have a firm texture, 
the whey and curd are dipped into a cloth bag and al- 
lowed to drain. When dry the curd is salted to suit the 
taste and cream or butter is mixed with it. 

Cottage or ''dutch" cheese is pot-cheese which is 
broken up into a granular or mealy condition, about 2 
Cottage ounces of salt being used to each 10 pounds of 

cheese product. Butter or cream is added as desired. 

207. Measuring the Amount of Fat in Milk 

Since milk and its products are important and almost 
universal foods, a determination of the fat content is of 



THE DAIRY 367 

great importance. The percentage of fat also often in- 
dicates whether the product has been adulterated or 
whether it meets the standards claimed Testing for 
for it. ^^* 

One of the simplest and most accurate methods of 
determining the percentage of fat in dairy products is 
by means of the Babcock test. This test 

S3.l)cock test 

itself is merely a method of operation ; but 

the fat, after certain treatment in specially prepared 

graduated bottles, is separated in a centrifuge, where- 




One Form of Babcock Tester 

upon its quantity may be read in terms of percentage in 
the graduated neck in which it collects. The centrifuge 
and necessary bottles constitute a machine usually known 
as the Babcock tester, of different patterns and sizes. 

The Babcock test is made as follows : by means of a glass tube, 
called a pipette, 17.6 cc. of milk (18 grams) is measured into a 
test-bottle, which has a neck graduated to read in Making the 
terms of percentage when this quantity of milk is Babcock test 
used. Then 17.5 cc. of strong sulfuric acid is added to the milk 
in the bottle. The acid and milk are thoroughly mixed at once 
by shaking the bottle. The acid destroys all the milk solids 
excepting the fat, on which it has practically no effect. It is better 



368 TOPIC 27 

to test two bottles of each sample, as one is then a check on the 
other. 

The bottles are then placed in the machine and whirled for 
five minutes. During the whirling the bottles assume a horizontal 
position, and since the fat is the lightest substance in the bottle, 
it is forced toward the graduated neck. At the end of five min- 
utes the machine is stopped and enough hot water added to bring 
the fat to the base of the bottle-neck. The bottles are then re- 
volved for two minutes, and hot water again added until the fat 
column is within the graduated part of the neck. Whirling is then 
continued for one minute more, to bring all of the fat into the 
neck of the bottle. The bottles are then ready to read. 

Some test bottles are graduated as small as tenths of one per 
cent, while others are marked only in fifths. The fat column 
should be read quickly, as the bottles give percentage readings 
only when the fat is in a liquid condition. The extreme points of 
the fat column should be included in reading a whole-milk bottle. 

The Babcock test for fat in milk products is similar to the test 
for fat in whole-milk. In most cases, as for example in testing 
cream, butter, or cheese, the amount used for the test cannot be 
measured out with a pipette, but must be accurately weighed. 

In nearly all states are laws specifying the lowest legal 
limit for fat and total solids in market milk. These 
Legal limits vary with different states, but they are 

standards usually from 3 per cent to 3.25 per cent for 
the fat and 11.5 per cent to 12 per cent for the total 
solids. Special markets may demand a higher percentage 
of milk-fat. 

208. Pasteurizing 

Named for Louis Pasteur, the great French biologist, 

the pasteurizing of milk is a process of heating to kill 

most of the germs, particularly disease-pro- 

ducing bacteria. Proper pasteurization 

holds the milk at a temperature of 142° F.-i45° F. for 



THE DAIRY 369 

30 minutes. If the milk is heated for any length of time 
above these temperatures, the fat will not rise to the sur- 
face as readily as in raw milk. Many leading authori- 
ties agree that temperature higher than 142° F.-i45° F. 
changes the chemical composition of milk and makes it 
less digestible. 

Both milk and cream may be pasteurized, but the pro- 
cess is most commonly employed with market-milk as a 
guard against the spread of disease. 

209. Certified and Guaranteed Milk 

In some cities are medical milk commissions that 
undertake to inspect dairy estabhshments and to test 
the milk for its sanitary and chemical qualities How milk is 
and who then certify to the quality of the certified 
milk. It is then called certified milk. The certification 
is not given by the producer or the owner himself, but he 
must comply with the rules laid down by the medical 
milk commission. 

Certified milk is necessarily of high price because of 
the expense involved in its production. 

A producer may guarantee his milk on his own respon- 
sibility, declaring that it is of certain quality as to milk- 
fat, and that it is clean and wholesome. He Guaranteed 
may make whatever guarantee his milk will ""^^ 
warrant. 

REVIEW 

How important is milk ? 

Compare milk and meat in nutrition vame. 

How extensive is milk production ? 

Define dairying. What is a creamery? What is whole-milk? 

What is the consumption of milk per capita ? 



370 TOPIC 27 

Give the composition of milk. 
What are total solids? solids not fat? 
How is the fat contained in milk? 
For what is the fat used in manufacture? 
For what purpose is the casein used ? 
Of what service is the milk-sugar? 
What is albumin ? 
What can you say about the ash? 

What are germs? How are they present in milk? What do 
they do ? 

How are germs kept out of milk? How about straining? 

What is cream ? 

How is cream separated from milk? 

What is a separator? 

What is butter? 

What does churning do? 

State the best temperature for churning. 

What is overrun ? 

Explain renovated or processed butter. 

What is cheese ? curd ? whey ? 

Describe the process of cheese-making. 

What is pot cheese ? 

Flow is the amount of fat determined ? 

Describe the Babcock test. 

What is pasteurizing ? its purpose ? 

Explain certified milk ; guaranteed milk. 

THOUGHT-QUESTIONS AND INQUIRIES 

Compare the food value of milk with that of the more impor- 
tant meats and cereals and cereal products. How much more for a 
pint or quart can one afford to pay for milk, and get the same 
food value as one is now paying for beefsteak or bread ? 

Make a census of the cow and calf population in your school 
district. How many dairy cows are there in the county? In 
the state? What is the total value of the dairy products in the 
county? In the state? 

Describe how the milk is handled in the milk-producing sections 
of the state. Are there any milk stations, condenseries, butter or 



THE DAIRY 371 

cheese factories in your county? If so, what is the amount and 
value of their output ? 

Follow carefully the following steps for demonstrating the con- 
stituents of milk : 

Materials. — Thermometer, bottle, saucer, pan, a few drops of 
vinegar, and one quart of fresh milk. 

For the fat. — Let one quart of fresh milk stand quietly in a pan 
in a cool place until a rich clearly-marked layer of cream gathers 
at the top. This cream is formed by the rising of countless balls 
or globules of pure milk-fat, often called butter-fat, which are 
distributed evenly through perfectly fresh milk or milk that is 
frequently stirred. The fat is so much lighter than the fluid in 
which it floats that most of it will be found in the cream layer in 
twelve hours, provided the milk was fresh when "set" and it has 
stood undisturbed in a cool place. 

The cream should be removed by skimming or dipping, warmed 
to about 60° F., and shaken in a bottle which is only partly filled. 
Soon the fat globules will unite and form light yellow granules large 
enough to be seen. The shaking or churning should be continued 
until as much fat is collected as possible. After it is washed a few 
times in clean cold water, it is seen in an almost pure state. This 
fat is the principal constituent of butter, and also one of the im- 
portant constituents of cheese. 

For the casein. — A few drops of acid (or vinegar) should be 
added to the skimmed milk which was left after the cream was 
taken off. Soon it will coagulate or thicken. It should then be 
gently warmed to about 100° F., and carefully broken by a knife 
or spoon into a few pieces. The skimmed milk will slowly separate 
into curds and whey. When the wh'ey amounts to more than half 
of the quantity of milk, it should be removed by pouring through 
a cloth strainer. The casein remains in the cloth. It is one of 
the principal constituents of cheese. 

For the albumin. — Slowly heat the whey to 160° F. It will 
become somewhat cloudy and soon a soft jelly-Hke substance 
will collect on the surface. This is albumin, which has been coag- 
ulated by the heat. It is similar to the albumin or white of an egg. 
It should be separated by straining. This constituent is not used 
in the manufacture of butter or the ordinary varieties of cheese. 

For the sugar. — A small quantity of whey which has been freed 
from its albumin is placed in a clean porcelain dish with a large 
bottom (as a saucer). This is warmed, care being taken not to burn 
it. It may be warmed in an oven with the door partly open. 
When the water has evaporated, a dry substance remains. This 
is about seven-eighths milk-sugar and one-eighth ash. It is not 



372 TOPIC 27 

practicable to separate the sugar in pure form from the ash. Sugar 
is not present in large quantity in either butter or cheese. 

For the ash. — A part of the mixture of sugar and ash is placed 
in a dish which will withstand high heat, or on the stove cover, 
and allowed to burn as long as it will. The small amount of in- 
combustible matter left is milk ash. It is not an important con- 
stituent of either butter or cheese. 

Fill two clean and scalded ha If -pint bottles with milk, labeling 
them A and B. Drop a very small piece of barnyard manure in B. 
Loosely cork or cover both bottles and set in a warm place. Note 
the difference in the contents of each bottle from day to day for a 
period of three or four days. Also the difference in odor of each. 

How much (what percentage) of butter-fat must milk contain 
that is sold at retail, according to the laws of your state? 

Who is Dr. S. M. Babcock? What is the importance of the 
milk-testing device that bears his name to the dairy industry ? 

Describe briefly the hfe of Pasteur. What are some of the im- 
portant biological discoveries made by him? How have these 
discoveries affected our daily lives ? 

What precautions should be taken in producing milk on the 
average farm? Send for the dairy-barn score-card recommended 
by your state college of agriculture. Apply it to your own dairy 
barn and methods, and note wherein improvements can be made. 

CLASS PROBLEMS 

Let the pupils bring milk to school from different cows ana 
herds, and make tests for fat (by the Babcock tester), for the casein 
and other contents. If there is not a regular cow- testing associa- 
tion in the district, the class may organize itself into a club for 
making such tests. It may also keep accounts of the cost of milk 
production, and post quotations of prices. 



TOPIC 28 

THE HOME 

What is the end and purpose of farming? To grow 
good crops and raise many animals? No. Only to 
make money ? No. To have the largest and best farm 
and the biggest and most attractive buildings? No. To 
be called the best farmer in the town ? No. To develop 
the best personal home life ? Yes, verily. 

All the outward things are indeed essential or desirable, 
but they have little value unless they are centered and 
combined to make better homes and more useful citizens. 

As one's home is, so does one live. Here are gathered 
all the treasures, all the hopes, all the sacred memories. 

2IO. The Farm and the Home Are One 

Unlike other persons, the farmer develops his occu- 
pation and his home at one and the same time. He lives 
on his farm. The merchant does not live The farm 
in his store, or the manufacturer in his ^°"^^ 
factory, the lawyer in his office, or the teacher in the 
schoolhouse. 

Whatever adds value to the farm also adds value to the 
home, for the farm and home are one. The children 
roam over the farm from the front road to the back lot. 
They play where they will. When the land is sold, the 
house is sold also. Whatever improves the one, improves 
the whole. 

373 



374 



TOPIC 28 



If a person comes to buy the farm, he looks through the 
house to see how it is built and the condition in which it is 
kept. He looks over the barn, the orchard, the live- 
stock, gives careful attention to the land. But this per- 
son might buy a mill or a mine without knowing where 
the miller or miner lives. 




'■■■''Mm 



A Farm Home 

Therefore must we think of a home whenever we think 
of a farm. 

211. It Is A Family Enterprise 

The manufacturer's wife and children may know very 
little about manufacturing, but every farm wife and every 
The farm farm boy and girl knows very much about 

family farming. It is said that they are born to 

it. Much of it they learn before they are aware of it and 
without knowing how they learned it. They use the 
words that farmers use and think in terms of land and 
crops and animals, of barns and fields, of seed-time and 
harvest. 



THE HOME 



375 



If the father is away, the mother and the children are 
competent to "look after things," to feed the animals, to 
keep the work going. A good farm family is one of the 
best examples of cooperation. 

The members of the family talk together about the 
crops, the welfare of the live-stock, the prospects, the 




Farm Home 

farm situation. The children may have their own ani- 
mals, or their own garden. Every member of the family 
is supposed to work. A farm is a family partnership. 

Yet the farm-house has its compartments, to be de- 
voted to particular uses. One is the kitchen, one the 
living-room, one the store-room. One of the rooms 
should be the office of the establishment. The farmer 
is now in business. He does not need to move to town 
to become a business man. His business should have a 
definite headquarters, where all the records may be kept. 



376 



TOPIC 28 



So also should there be a rest-room for the mother, 
where she may be at ease and free from annoyance. 
The entire family should cooperate to make these two 
rooms of value to the home enterprise. 




The Farmer's Office 



212. The Work and the Play 

The farm is no place for idlers, or for those unwilling 
to do their part. The work is hard, but it is productive ; 
one can see the results of one's labor. If one is brought 
up to be busy and to be useful, then does idling seem to be 
a hardship. It is those who are brought up with few 
responsibilities and with no expenditure of real effort, 
who look on farm work with dread. They look on any 
real work with dread. 

Industry is the salvation of any people. The idlers 
and shirkers are parasites. The fault lies in their educa- 



THE HOME 377 

tion and their bringing up. If one is trained to it from 
the beginning, then does work become a satisfaction. 
Work is not to be avoided in any walk of The value of 
life. ^°"^ 

The interest of the work lies very much in understand- 
ing it, in knowing the reasons why, and in being able to 
look forward to the results. 

There is little mental incentive to work all day and all 
the year at a machine that makes a small part of a shoe 
or a mechanism. But there should be great Resources of 
incentive in the thousands of experiences ^^^^ ^°^^ 
that come to a farmer in the course of the month. How 
many kinds of work does he do from waking to sleeping, 
how many things does he see, how many plans does he 
make? 

Often the farmer wishes that he had fewer things to do. 
Yet he would not change places with the person who does 
only one thing. 

The mind must be opened. This is the purpose of 
every class-teaching of farming, of every college of 
agriculture, of every experiment station, . , 

every text and book on farming, every farm must work 
paper, every farmers' institute, and every ^ ^° 
farm bureau. There is vast intellectual wealth now 
within reach of the farmer. 

The boy and girl grow into these riches so early and 
unconsciously that they may not appreciate them. They 
do not think of the privilege they have to run and roam, 
to shout, to ride the horse, to find the apples, to build 
playhouses, to explore in fields and woods. 

^'AU work and no play makes Jack a dull boy," is the 
old adage. This is true ; but there are relatively few 



378 TOPIC 28 

farm girls and boys to which this applies in these days. 
Great plans are now made to organize play for children. 
Recreation for These plans are good ; yet we are to remem- 
farm folk j^gj- ij^^^ there are other forms of recreation 

than play, and that those who have interesting and useful 
work and varied experiences may not need to play so 
regularly as those who work stated hours in shops and 
who are much given to idling the remainder of the time. 
It is good to see some of the older and simpler games 
come back to the open country. Contests between 
clubs are good ; so, also, are picnics, excur- 

The games . i • • rr«i i i 

sions, and visits. The school may encourage 
a wholesome play spirit. 

213. The Home Premises 

With the inside of the house it is not the purpose of 
this book to deal, but about the lawn and yard it may say 
something. 

This is the day of the lawn mower. A good green- 
sward is the foundation of the home picture, in all climates 
The place in which grass makes a good sod. The lawn 

house should be clean, smooth, and kept well shaven. 

The land should be fertile so that the grass may be good. 
The grass should be very thick, for we want many fine 
leaves and stems and not a crop of hay. A lawn is not a 
mown meadow. 

On the front lawn should be very few trees and bushes 
and no flower-beds. This subject we have discussed in 
The lawn and Topic 1 8. The center should be open in 
the planting general, free of obstructions, and of boxes 
and tubs in which plants try to grow. Of course, a few 
trees may stand here and there for shade, if shade is 



THE HOME 379 

needed ; but there should not be so many trees and 
shrubs that there is no place for lawn. 

Most of the plantmg should be at the sides and the 
rear, to frame the picture. Many of the native plants 
are good. The hardy and dependable things should be 
used, those that withstand the winter and drought. 

It is a pleasure to experiment with the new things. 
These may very well be tried in the garden, if they are 
flowers or shrubs. About the borders of the place, along 
the fence, by a driveway, an abundance of flowers may 
often be grown with much satisfaction. 

The chief interest in the premises is the residence. An 
attractive house is a great joy. Let us hope that it is kept 
in good repair, well painted, and that it always looks clean. 

It is the mark of the good housekeeper that her house 
is neat. So should the yard be neat. It should be 
spick-and-span, which means that there Neatness and 
is no rubbish or litter, that the grass is mown, *^^^^* 
the fence and gate in repair, the hitching-posts and 
horse-blocks and clothes-lines straight, the tools under 
cover, the roadsides in shape. Even the most ordinary 
place has an air of thrift if it is tidy. 

The good housekeeper is also known by the arrange- 
ment of the furniture and the decorations. The objects 
are not scattered, without order. So do the premises 
gain great attraction if they are well arranged. The 
layout of the yard should follow a plan. 

214. The Public Has a Right 

The farm is not locked up. The buildings, crops, and 
live-stock are not hidden. The house and the premises 
are seen by every passer-by. 



38o 



TOPIC 28 



The neighborhood is made up of the farms and premises. 
The pride of the rural community is the pride in these 
Obligation to lands and homes. In a certain sense they 
the neighbor belong to the community. Every one is 
interested to see them kept up. 

So is one to have a proper regard for the neighbor. 
One owes it to the neighbor to keep one's property in 
good order. One owes it to the community. Neigh- 
borhood pride is a power for good. It brings the neighbors 
together and gives them a common interest. This 
community includes not only the farmers, but all who live 
therein. 

We trust the time is not far distant when farm resi- 
dences and other rural homes can be as definitely num- 
bered and located as are houses in cities, and when direc- 
tories of country people can be printed. This will not 
only facilitate business and communication, but will give 
a new public interest to the people in the open country. 

No man liveth to himself alone. 




One of the Prides of the Country Home 



INDEX 



Abandoned farms, 5. 6. 
Abortion, contagious, 288. 
Accounts, keeping, 139. MO- 
Acidity, soil, 46- 
Acid phosphate, 49. 
Acre, yields to, 12. 
Adirondack forests, 214- 
Adulterated seeds, 104. 
Advanced register, 243- 
Agassiz, cited, 115- 
Age and growth of animals, 235- 
Agents, farm, 148. 

Agriculture, defined, 13; extent of, 
importance of, 13; in schools, 146. 
Air, atmosphere, 7°; in soil, 42. 
Airplane, i. 

Albumin in milk, 360, 371- 
Alfalfa, 175- 

Alternation of fields, 158. 
Amateur, 8. 
American farmer, 15. 
Ammonium sulfate, 49- 
Anas, 323. 
Anconas, 324. 
Angora goats, 315- 
Angus cattle, 291. 
Animal, chapter on, 112; husbandry, 

nourishment of, 120. 
Animals, breeding of, 233 ; ^5- plants. 
Annuals, 98. 
Anser, 322. 
Apiculture, 13- 
Apis, 340- 

Arab horse, 268, 270. 
Arid regions, 4. 
Arsenate of lead, 127. 
Ash, 95 ; in feeds, 249, 252 ; in milk. 
Asparagus, 228. 
Atavism, 240. 
Atmosphere, 70. 
Automobile and horses, 266. 
Availability, 36- 
Aviculture, 13- 
Ax, 55- 
Axle, 59- 
Ayrshire cattle, 283. 



13; 



13 



90. 



360, 



Babcock, S. M., 372; test, 367- 

Bacon hog, 297. 

Bacteria, 35, 44, 9i I in milk, 361. 

Barley, 184. 

Barnyard, covered, 29. 

Barometer, 73, 76- 

Basic slag, 49- 

Bean, germination, loi. 

Beans, 228. 

Beef cattle, 288. 

Bees, chapter on, 337 ; diseases of, 349- 

Beets, 200, 228. 

Belgian horse, 268, 272. 

Berkshire swine, 298. 

Beta, 200. 

Bevel-gear, 61. 

Bible, corn in, 188. 

Biennials, 98. 

Bird-houses, 125. 

Bird's-eye view, 2. 

Birds, how many, 115; wild, 125. 

Bison, 280. 

Bisulfide of carbon, 102. 

Blodgett, W. K., quoted, 66. 

Blood, 122; dried, 49- 

Boar, 29s, 300- 

Bone-making material, 249. 

Bone meal, 49. 

Bookkeeping, 139- 

Bos, 279, 280. 

Brand, on produce, 136. 

Branta, 322. 

Brassica, 201. 

Breathing, animal, 122. 

Breeding of animals, 233. 

Breeding of plants, 160. 

Breeze, 74. 

Bronn, cited, nS- 

Brood, bees, 338- 

Brooder, 326, 332. 

Brooding, 33 1- 

Browne, F. S., quoted, 203. 

Brown Swiss cattle, 282. 

Buck, 306. 

Budding, 107. 

Buffalo, 118, 280. 

381 



382 



INDEX 



Burgess, C. H., credited, 32Q. 
Butter, 364; -fat, 359, 371. 
Buyers, 131. 

C,35. 

Ca, 35. 

Cabbage, 201, 220, 228. 

Calcium cyanamid, 49. 

Calves, 285, 286, 291. 

Cam. 61, 62. 

Camel, 118. 

Canadian signals, 85. 

Canary bird, 118. 

Candling eggs, 321. 

Capillary movement, 38. 

Capra, 315. 

Carbohydrates in feeds, 249, 250, 253. 

Carbon dioxide, 91. 

Care of machines, 66. 

Carnations, 220. 

Carnivorous, 121. 

Carpenter's tools, 55. 

Carrot, 201. 

Casein, 359, 371. 

Caterpillar, 126. 

Cats, 113, 118. 

Cattle, chapter on, 278. 

Cauliflower, 220, 228. 

Celery, 228. 

Census, Canada, quoted, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 
120, 182, 189, 195, 281, 296, 307, 319, 
355 ; United States, quoted, 7, 8, 11, 14, 
119, 173, 181, 189, 195, 213, 227, 281, 
289, 318, 355. 

Cereals, 180. 

Certified milk, 369. 

Charcoal, 95. 

Chard, Swiss, 228. 

Cheese, 365. 

Chemical symbols, 34, 35. 

Cheshire swine, 298. 

Chester White, 298, 299. 

Cheviot sheep, 308. 

Chinese, 3. 

CeHioOs, 35, 94- 

Cholera, hog, 303. 

Chrysanthemums, 220. 

Chunk honey, 345. 

Chvu-ch, rural, 149. 

Churning, 364. 

Cions, 106. 

Cirrus, 82. 

Clay, 36, 37. 

Cleaning the land, 21. 

Cleft-graft, 107. 

Cleveland Bay, 268. 



Clevis, 58, 64. 

Climate, 72; local, 86. 

Clouds, 81. 

Clovers, 108, 173. 

Clubs, 147. 

Clydesdale, 267, 268, 271, 

Cocoon, 126. 

Cogs, 60. 

Colic in horses, 275. 

Collective buying and selling, 138. 

Collingwood, H. W., quoted, 151. 

Colony, bees, 337; house, 329. 

Color of soils, 43. 

Comb honey, 345. 

Community, the, 143 ; center, 144. 

Companion, the, 113. 

Composition of feeds, 254. 

Compost, 29. 

Compounds, 34. 

Concentrates, 253, 254. 

Consumer, selling to, 132, 

Contagious abortion, 288. 

Cool-season plants, 164. 

Coop, 332. 

Cooperative marketing, 137. 

Corn, 108; -belt, 187; crops, chapter on, 

187; foods removed, 45; sweet, 192, 

228. 
Cornell ration, 327. 
Cost-accounting, 140. 
Cotswold sheep, 308. 
Cottage cheese, 366. 
Cotton-belt, 206 ; chapter on, 206. 
County agents, 148. 
Cover-crop, 157. 
Covered stable, 28. 
Cowpea, 177. 
Cow-testing, 140, 285. 
Crank, 60. 

Cream, what it is, 362. 
Creamery, 356. 
Crevecoeur hens, 325. 
Crop, defined, 154. 
Cropping, chapter on, 154. 
Crops, food removed by, 44. 
Crop-scheme, 155. 

Crossing, in animals, 241 ; plants, 100, 163. 
CS2, 102. 
Cucumber, 228. 
Cultivating, 25. 
Cultivator, 26. 
Cultural requirements, 163. 
Cumulus, 82. 
Curd, 365. 
Cuttings, 105. 
Cyanamid, 49. 



INDEX 



383 



Cyclone, 75, 76. 
Cyprian bees, 340. 

Dairy cattle, 281 ; chapter on, 354- 
Dairying, defined, 355. 
Dam and sire, 242. 
Dating-back, 240. 
Daucus, 201. 
Differential, 61. 
Digestible nutrients, 255. 
Digestion in animals, 121, 253. 
Diseases, of bees, 349 ; of cattle, 287 ; of 
fowls, 333 ; oi hogs, 303 ; of plants, 96 ; 
of sheep, 314. 
Dispersal of seeds, 100. 

Diversified farming, 10. 

Division, propagation by, 104. 

Divisions of farms, 2. 

Dogs, 114, 118. 

Dorset sheep, 308, 310, 311. 

Draft horses, 269. 

Drainage, 23. 

Drake, 323. 

Dreamer of dreams, 150. 

Dried blood, 49. 

Drones, 338, 339. 

Dry-farming, 4, 41. 

Dry-matter in feed, 248. 

Duck, 322; farmers, 3. 

Duroc-Jersey, 298, 299. 

Durra, 189. 

Dust in air, 71. 

Dutch Belted cattle, 282. 

Eccentric, 63. 
Educating the animal, 237. 
Education, 16. 
Egg, nature of, 320. 
Eggplant, 194, 228. 
Elements, the, 34. 
Elephant, 118. 
Embryo, loi. 
Endive, 228. 
Environment, 235. 
Equus, 268. 
Essex swine, 298. 
Evaporation from soil, 39- 
Evener, 57. 
Ewe, 306, 312. 
Experience, 16. 
Extensive farming, 11. 

Falconer, cited, 20. 
Fallowing, 26. 
Families of plants, 108. 
Fancier, 9. 



286; 

of ani- 

sheep. 



Farm, defined, 3; home, 374; -laborer, 7. 

Farmer, defined, 6; quaUfications, 14, 15. 

Farmers, kinds of, 8, 10; number, 14. 

Farms, sizes of, n. 

Farmstead, 4. 

Fat, in feeds, 249, 250, 253 ; in milk, 359, 

363, 371- 
Fe, 35- 

Fecundation, 99. 
Feeders, 289, 292. 

Feeding, birds, 125; dairy cow, 259, 
for beef, 292; hogs, 301, 302: 
mals, 248; poultry, 326, 332 
312; standard, 257, 258. 
Feeds, composition of, 254, 261 ; manurial 

values, 261. 
Fermentation of manures, 27. 
Ferrum, 35. 

Fertihzation, flower, 99. 
Fertilizer needs, 45 ; values in feeds, 261. 
Fertilizers, 35, 48, 49, SO- 

Fields, layout, 21. 

Film water, 38. 

Fippin, picture by, 23. 

Fishes, how many, 115. 

Fleece, 307, 308. 

Flesh-making material, 249. 

Flock, starting, 325. 

Floriculture, 13, 220. 

Flower, 98; -beds, 221; -growing, 227. 

Follower, 62. 

Food, animal, 252; removed by crops, 44- 

Forage, 167. 

Forecasts, 83. 

Forest, definition, 212. 

Forestry, 13. 

ForetelUng weather. 83. 

Foul-brood, 349- 

Fowls, 318. 

Frames for bees, 341. 

Franklin, Benjamin, and kite, 79. 

French Coach horse, 268; Draft horse, 268. 

Friction wheels, 61. 

Frosts, 85. 

Fruit-growing, 13, 220, 223. 

Fulcrum, 57- 

Fungi, 96. 

Fungicides, 97. 

Fungoids, 96. 

Furrow, 64 ; -sUce, 64. 

Gale, 74- 

Galloway cattle, 291. 
Gallus, 321. 
Galton's law, 239. 
Gardening, 220. 



384 



INDEX 



Gases, 34. 

Gears, 60. 

Genera, 108. 

Georgia, quoted, 22. 

German bees, 340 ; Coach horse, 268. 

Germination, loi. 

Germs, 35, 97; in milk, 361. 

Gin, for cotton, 210. 

Goats, 315. 

Goldfish, 118. 

Goose, 322. 

Gossypium, 206. 

Graders, 135. 

Grading produce, 134. 

Grafting, 106. 

Graminese, 108. 

Granulation, 38. 

Grass and forage, chapter on, 167 ; family, 

• 108. 

Gravel, 36. 

Grazing, 13 ; crops, 168. 

Green-manuring crops, 156. 

Guaranteed milk, 369. 

Guernsey, 282, 283. 

Guinea fowl, 322. 

Gullying, 40. 

H,3S. 

Hackney, 268, 271. 

Hampshire sheep, 308, 310; swine, 29S. 

Harness horses, 269. 

Harper, cited, 277. 

Harrow, 26. 

Hatching eggs, 331. 

Heat of soil, 43. 

Henry and Morrison, cited, 255. 

Herbicide, 23. 

Herbivorous, 121. 

Heredity, 239. 

Hereford, 290. 

High-and-low, 74; vs. low yields, 12. 

Highway, 150. 

Hive, 340. 

HNO3, 35- 

H2O, 35, 95. 

Hoe, 26, 55. 

Hog, cholera, 303 ; -house, 301. 

Hogs, chapter on, 295 ; diseases of, 303 ; 

in corn-belt, 118. 
Holcus, 109, 189. 
Hold crops, 159. 
Holstein, 278, 283. 
Home, chapter on, 373; demonstration 

agents, 14S; garden, 221 ; grounds, 378; 

mixing, 49. 
Homestead, 4. 



Honey, 342, 345 ; -bee, 338; plants, 343. 

Horse, 233, 267. 

Horse-radish, 202, 228. 

Horticulture, 13; chapter on, 219. 

Host plant, 96. 

Hotbeds, 222. 

Hothouse lambs, 311. 

Housing animals, 236; poultry, 328. 

H2SO4, 35- 

Humid regions, 4. 

Humus, 37. 

Hunter horse, 268. 

Hurricane, 74, 76. 

Husbandry, 13. 

Husk-tomato, 194. 

Hygiene and care, 123. 

Imago, 126. 

Implements, chapter on, 55. 

Improvement of animals, 234. 

Inclined plane, 60. 

Incubation of hen, 331, 332. 

Indian corn, 108, 187. 

Inoculation of soils, 46. 

Insecticides, 127. 

Insects, general, 126; how many, 115. 

Intensive farming, 11, 219. 

Intestines, 121. 

Inventory, 140. 

Ipomoea, 109, 195. 

Irish potato, 109, 196. 

Irrigation, 4, 41. 

Italian bees, 340. 

Jersey cattle, 282. 
Jerusalem cherry, 194. 
Judging animals, 124. 
Jungle-fowl, 321. 

K,35. 

Kafir, 189. 

Kainit, 49. 

Kale, 228. 

KaUum, 35. 

Keeping books, 139. 

Kerosene emulsion, 128. 

Kidneys, 122. 

Kilpatrick, M. C., credited, 319, 

Kinds of farmers, 8. 

KNO3, 35. 

Kohl-rabi, 201, 202, 228. 

Lambs, 306, 311, 313. 
Land, chapter on, 19. 
Landlord, 7. 



INDEX 



385 



Landscape, i. 

Lane, 21. 

Langstroth hive, 341. 

Lard hog, 297. 

Larvae, 126. 

Lawn, 378. 

Lawry's lice powder, 334. 

Layers, 105. 

Layout of farm, 21. 

Leadership, 150. 

Legal grades, 134- 

Leghorn, white, 324. 

Legumes and nodules, 45. 

Leguminosae, 108. 

Leicester sheep, 308. 

Lettuce, 220, 228. 

Lever, 56. 

Library, 149. 

Lice on hens, 334. 

Life-history, 114. 

Lightning, 79 ; -rods, 80. 

Lime for land, 47 ; -sulfur, 128. 

Lincoln sheep, 308, 310. 

Line-shaft, 58. 

Links, 57. 

Lint of cotton, 207. 

Litmus, 47. 

Liver, 121. 

Live-stock, farm, 117. 

Llama, 115, 118. 

Loam, 37. 

Machines, 55, 56. 

Maize, 187. 

Mallow family, 206, 207. 

Malvaceae, 206. 

Mammals, how many, 115. 

Man, yields to, 12. 

Manager, 7. 

Mangels, 200. 

Manure-spreaders, 28. 

Manurial values in feeds, 261. 

Manuring, 27. 

Map, weather, 83. 

Market, chapter on, 131 ; milk, 

-place, 131. 
Mattock, 26. 

McDowell, M. S., quoted, 227. 
Meadows and pastures, 167, 170. 
Medicago, 175. 
Meleagris, 322. 
Melons, 220, 228. 
Merino sheep, 308, 309. 
Merit in animals, 238. 
Mg, 35- 
Middleman, 134. 



in feeds, 250; sources 



Milk, as food, 354; composition, 357; 

fat, 359, 363, 371 ; -sugar, 360, 371- 
Milo, 189. 

Mineral matter, 34 ; in feeds, 249. 
Minorcas, 324. 
Miracle, the, 91. 
Mixed farming, 10. 
Moisture in soil, 39. 
MoUusks, 3> US- 
Morning-glory, 109. 
Mother, the, 112. 
Mouth, 121. 
Mulch, soil, 40. 
Mulefoot swine, 298. 
Mules, 266, 275. 
Muriate of potash, 49. 
Muskmelon, 228. 
Mutton sheep, 307, 308. 

N, 35. 

Narrow ratios, 257. 
Nature-study, 147. 
Neck-yoke, 58. 
Nectar, 342. 
Nightshade, 194. 
Nitrification, 45. 
Nitrogen, 35> 44 

of, 49- 
Nodules, 45. 

Nourishment of animal, 1 20. 
Numida, 322. 
Nutrients, digestible, 255. 
Nutritive ratio, 256. 
Nuts, on machines, 67. 

O, 35- 

Oats, 184; foods removed, 45. 

Oiling, 67. 

Olericulture, 13, 220. 

Onion, 220, 228. 

Open country, 2 ; drains, 23. 

Operator, 7. 

Orchards, 225. 

Organic matter, 34 ; in soil, 37- 

Oryza, 180. 

Osnaosis, 93' 

Otherism, 113- 

Ovis, 306. 

Owners, 7. 

Oxford sheep, 308. 

Oxygen in feeds, 252. 

P, 35- 
Pacer, 268, 

Packing produce, 134- 
Pansies, 220. 



386 



INDEX 



Parasites, 97; of sheep, 314. 

Parcel post marketing, 133. 

Parsley, 228. 

Parsnip, 201, 228. 

Particles, soil, 36. 

Partnership farming, 7, 

Pasteurizing, 368. 

Pastinaca, 201. 

Pasture, 168. 

Pawl, 59. 

Pea family, 108. 

Peas, 228. 

Peasants, 15. 

Pedigree, 242. 

Peppers, 194, 228. 

Percheron, 268, 271. 

Percolation, 39. 

Perennial crops, 158. 

Perennials, 98. 

Performance in animals, 238, 243. 

Pheasants, 321. 

Phosphate rock, 49. 

Phosphorus, sources of, 49. 

Pigs, chapter on, 295. 

Pistillate flowers, 99. 

Pitman, 63. 

Plant, chapter on, 90 ; diseases, 96. 

Planting about home, 378. 

Plants, for honey, 343; kinds of, icS; 

vs. animals, 90. 
Play for the young, 376. 
Plow, 26, 55 ; description of, 63, 65. 
Plymouth Rock hens, 325. 
Poland-China, 298. 
Polish fowls, 325. 
PoHtical units, 145. 
Pollen, 99 ; for bees, 342. 
Pollination, 99. 
Pomology, 13, 220, 223. 
Ponies, 268. 
Population, 14. 
Pore-space, 34, 42, 
Potassium, 35 ; sources of, 49. 
Potato, 109. 

Potatoes, chapter on, 1 94; foodsremoved,4S. 
Poultry, chapter on, 318; husbandry, 13. 
Pratt, cited, 115. 
Prediction of weather, 77. 
Premises, home, 378. 
Prepotency, 240. 
Pressure of atmosphere, 73. 
Preventing frosts, 85. 
Propagation of plants, 104. 
Protein in feeds, 249, 250, 252 
Protoplasm, 94. 
Protozoans, 91. 



Public-service garden, 222. 
Pullets, 332. 
Pulse, 122. 
Pumpkin, 220. 
Pupa, 126. 

Qualifications for farmer, 15. 
Queen bee, 338, 339. 

Radish, 202, 228. 

Rag doll tester, 103. 

Rain, 79, 81, 87; -gage, 87. 

Rake, 26. 

Rambouillet sheep, 308, 309, 311. 

Ranges, for beef, 288. 

Rape, 201. 

Ratchet, 59. 

Ratio, nutritive, 256. 

Ration, 236, 253, 259, 260, 287, 312; for 
poultry, 326. 

Razor-back, 295. 

Reading-club, 149. 

Records of weather, 86. 

Recreation, 376. 

Red clover, foods removed, 45. 

Red pepper, 194, 228. 

Registry of animals, 243, 244. 

Renovated butter, 365. 

Reptiles, how many, 115. 

Reservations, forest, 214. 

Reversion, 240. 

Rhode Island Reds, 325. 

Rhubarb, 228. 

Rice, 180. 

Rivers in the air, 75. 

Roads, 150. 

Roller, 26. 

Root, 92; crops, 200; -hairs, 93; pas- 
turage, 93. 

Rosaceae, 108. 

Rose family, 108. 

Roses, 220. 

Rotation, 158. 

Roughage, 253, 254. 

Roup, 333. 

Runners, 105. 

Run-ofi', 39. 

Rutabaga, 201, 220, 228. 

Rye, 108, 184. 

S, 35. 

Saddle horse, 268, 269, 270. 
Saliva, 121. 
Salsify, 202, 228, 
Saltpeter, 35. 
Sand, 36. 



INDEX 



387 



Sap, 95- 

Saw, 55. 

School garden, 223. 

Schools, 146. 

Score-cards, 124. 

Scrub cow, 281. 

Secale, 108. 

Seed-bed, 25 ; breeding, 162. 

Seeds, adulterated, 104; dispersal, 100; 

saving and storing, 102; testing, 102. 
Selection, 162, 237. 
Selling produce, 131, 136. 
Semiarid, 41. 
Separators, 363. 
Sericulture, 13. 
Shaft, 59. 

Sheep, chapter on, 306; diseases, 314. 
Sheldon, picture by, 80. 
Shetland pony, 268. 
Shire horse, 268, 272. 
Shorthorn, 290; milking, 282. 
Shote, 295. 

Shropshire sheep, 308, 309. 
Signals, weather, 84, 85. 
Signs of the weather, 79. 
Silage, 187. 
Silo, 187, 250. 
Silt, 36, 37. 
Sire and dam, 242. 
Sizes of farms, 11. 
Skim-milk cheese, 366. 
Small grains, chapter on, 180. 
Smith, Cora A., quoted, 125. 
Societies, rural, 149"; 
Sodium nitrate, 49. 
Soil acidity, 46 ; air, 42 ; chapter on, 33 ; 

heat, 43 ; -mulch, 40 ; -solution, 44 ; 

water, 38. 
Soiling-crops, 157. 
Solanum, 109, 194. 
Solomon, cited, 321. 
Sorghum, 189. 
Sorters, 135. 
Sour soils, 46. 
Southdown sheep, 308. 
Sow (swine), 295, 300, 
Sowed crops, 25. 
Spade, 26, 55. 
Sparrow, English, 125. 
Specialist, 9. 
Spinach, 228. 
Spraying, 127. 
Sprockets, 63. 
Spur-gears, 60. 
Squash, 220, 228, 
Stables, dairy, 284; sanitary, 123. 



Staminate flowers, 99. 

Standardbred horse, 268, 271. 

Staple of cotton, 207. 

Starch, 35, 94. 

Steers, 289. 

Stomach, 121. 

Stomata, 95. 

Storage houses, 138. 

Storm-center, 77 ; tracks, 77. 

Storms, 75. 

Stover, 187 

Straining milk, 362. 

Stratus clouds, 82. 

Structure of soil, 38. 

Struts, 58. 

Subdivisions of land, 19. 

Suffolk horse, 268 ; swine, 298. 

Sugar-bush, 216. 

Sulfate of potash, 49. 

Summer- fallow, 26. 

Sus, 295. 

Swarming of bees, 348. 

Sweet herbs, 220; peas, 220; potato, 109, 

195, 198. 
Swine, chapter on, 295. 
Swiss chard, 228. 
Symbols, chemical, 34, 35. 
Syndicate farming, 7. 
Syrian bees, 340. 

Tamworth swine, 298, 299, 300. 

Tankage, 49. 

Taxation, 145. 

Teeth, 121. 

Telephone society, 149. 

Temperature, animal, 122. 

Tenant, 7. 

Testing, cows, 140, 285; milk, 367, 371; 

seeds, 102. 
Texas Long- horn, 280, 281. 
Thermometer shelter, 87. 
Thoroughbred horse, 268, 270. 
Thunder, 79, 81 ; heads, 82 ; storms, 75, 

78. 
Tile drains, 23. 

Tillage and water, 40 ; tools, 26. 
Tilled crops, 25. 
Tilling, 25. 

Timber, chapter on, 212. 
Tomato, 194, 228. 

Tools, chapter on, 55 ; for tillage, 26. 
Tornado, 75, 76. 
Total digestible nutrients, 255. 
Tracks of storms, 77. 
Tractor, 22, 266. 
Training animals, 237. 



388 



INDEX 



Transpiration, 39, 95. 
Trifolium, 108, 173. 
Triticum, 182. 
Trotter, 268. 
Tuberculosis, 287. 
Tunis sheep, 308, 310, 311. 
Turkey, 116, 322. 
Turnip, 201, 220, 228. 
Typhoon, 76. 

Underdrainage, 24. 

Vanes, 88. 

Variation in animals, 241. 

Vegetable-gardening, 13, 220, 226; oyster, 

202. 
Ventilation of soil, 43. 
Victoria swine, 298. 
Vigna, 177. 
Violets, 220. 
Viticulture, 13. 

Wallace's Year-Book, 243. 

Wallow for hogs, 301. 

Warber, cited, 32. 

Warm-season plants, 164. 

Washing of lands, 40. 

Water-farming, 3 ; in air, 71 ; in feed, 249, 



252; in soil, 38; symbol for, 35: 

-table, 24. 
Weather, chapter on, 70; delined, 71; 

map, 83; prophets, 77; records, 86; 

signs, 79; -vane, 88. 
Weeds, 22. 

Weight of atmosphere, 73. 
Wheat, 181 ; foods removed, 45. 
Wheel, 59 ; -hoe, 26. 
When to sell, 137. 
Whey, 365. 
Whiffletree, 57. 
Wide ratios, 257. 
Wild birds, 125; life, 114. 
Wind, 74. 
Woodlot, 212. 
Wool sheep, 307, 308. 
Worker bees, 338, 339. 
Worm-and- wheel, 61. 
Wrenches, 67. 
Wyandotte hens, 325. 

Yields, high vs. low, 12. 
Yorkshire swine, 298, 300. 

Zea, 108, 188. 
Zebu, 280. 
Zephyr, 74. 



Printed in the United States of America. 



